Final Exam Outline

Cultural/Subcultural Theory

This theory examines how specific groups, often referred to as subcultures, develop their own distinct values and norms which may diverge from or directly oppose the prevailing beliefs of mainstream society. It emphasizes the role of cultural context in shaping behaviors and attitudes.

Robert E. Park's Growth Pattern

Robert E. Park proposed that urban growth follows a natural progression characterized by a cycle of invasion, dominance, and succession among city areas. Different neighborhoods evolve over time as they respond to social, economic, and environmental pressures.

Miller's Six Focal Concerns

Developed by Walter Miller, this concept identifies a set of six values common in lower-class cultures—namely, fate (the belief that life is out of one's control), autonomy (the pursuit of freedom), trouble (involvement in conflict), toughness (valuing strength), excitement (seeking thrills), and smartness (being streetwise)—which collectively contribute to behaviors such as delinquency.

Howard Zehr's Principles of Restorative Justice

Howard Zehr's work is foundational in restorative justice, emphasizing the importance of repairing harm done to victims, rebuilding relationships affected by crime, and engaging the community in a collaborative justice process. This approach seeks to address the needs of all parties involved rather than focusing solely on punishment.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A sociological concept indicating that individuals often internalize societal labels or expectations, which in turn shapes their behavior and leads to outcomes that confirm those initial labels, effectively reinforcing negative stereotypes.

Attachment Styles

Attachment styles refer to the patterns of attachment behavior that individuals develop in relationships, based on early bonding experiences with caregivers. These styles—secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized—significantly influence interpersonal relationships and emotional regulation in adulthood.

Intersectionality in Feminist Theory

This analytical framework explores how various overlapping social identities, such as race, gender, class, and sexual orientation, interconnect to shape individuals' experiences of crime, victimization, and the justice system. It highlights the complexity of discrimination and privilege.

Roughnecks vs. Saints

A sociological case study contrasting two groups of adolescents: the Roughnecks, who were frequently viewed negatively and subjected to scrutiny for their delinquent behavior, and the Saints, who engaged in similar delinquency but were perceived more positively due to their social class status and family connections.

Neighborhood Effect on Crime

This principle asserts that crime rates tend to be higher in neighborhoods marked by social disorganization, economic deprivation, and a lack of community cohesion. The conditions in these areas create an environment conducive to criminal behavior.

Temporary Shaming Techniques

Proposed by John Braithwaite, these techniques involve public expressions of disapproval aimed at wrongdoers, intended to foster healing and reintegration into the community rather than solely emphasizing punishment.

Violence as Learning

This concept posited by Ferracuti and Wolfgang suggests that violent behavior can be learned as individuals observe and adapt to their environments, leading them to adopt violence as a coping mechanism in response to life's challenges.

Decent Families

In Elijah Anderson's 'Code of the Street,' decent families are those that embrace mainstream societal values, striving to instill these in their children while actively participating in community and religious activities, aiming for stability and acceptance.

Street Families

Also identified in Anderson's work, street families lack stability and are often characterized by aggressive behavior and disorganization. These families may prioritize a code of the street over more conventional social values.

Economic Deprivation

This term refers to the absence of economic resources, which is frequently linked to high crime rates. Economic deprivation creates conditions of social disorganization that can foster criminal behavior within communities.

Physical Decay

Physical decay represents the visible deterioration of neighborhood infrastructure—like abandoned buildings and poor maintenance—which is often correlated with higher crime rates as it reflects social disorganization and neglect.

Social Mobility

Social mobility describes the movement of individuals or families within a social hierarchy, which can significantly impact community cohesion and stability. High levels of social mobility can contribute to a more dynamic and cohesive community.

Howard Zehr

Recognized as a pioneer and prominent advocate for restorative justice, Howard Zehr's contributions have established him as the 'grandfather of restorative justice,' where his work emphasizes community involvement and the importance of healing over punishment.

Figuration of Crime

A sociological approach suggesting that crime is significantly influenced by contextual factors, including the social structure and environmental conditions in which individuals operate, recognizing the role of societal interactions in criminal behavior.

Victim-Centered Approach

This restorative justice perspective prioritizes the needs, feelings, and rights of victims, ensuring their voices are integral to the healing and reconciliation process that follows criminal behavior.

Self-Identity in Crime

The formulation of self-identity plays a critical role in influencing how individuals perceive themselves concerning criminal actions and societal labels, which in turn can shape their behavioral choices.

Community Cohesion

Community cohesion refers to the interconnectedness and collective sense of belonging among community members, which has been associated with lower crime rates due to increased social support and collective efficacy.

Stereotypes of Deviance

Stereotypes of deviance encompass the preconceived notions and assumptions society holds regarding individuals or groups, often based on social identifiers such as race, class, or ethnicity, leading to biased perceptions of criminality.

Neighborhood Watch

A proactive strategy aimed at crime prevention that encourages community residents to collaborate, monitor local activities, and report suspicious behavior, thereby enhancing neighborhood safety.

Secure Attachment and Relationships

The establishment of secure attachments in childhood is crucial for forming healthy relationships in adulthood, impacting emotional regulation, trust, and interpersonal connections.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Deviance

This phenomenon occurs when individuals internalize and act upon negative societal labels, leading to behaviors that align with those labels, thus perpetuating a cycle of deviance.

Equity in Restorative Practices

This principle ensures that restorative justice efforts are implemented fairly, addressing disparities and promoting a balanced approach that acknowledges the harms caused by crime.

Power Dynamics in Crime

This analysis investigates how societal power imbalances, particularly those related to gender, affect crime patterns, victimization, and the experiences individuals encounter within the criminal justice system.

Strain Theory Adaptations

Strain theory explores how individuals adapt to societal pressures and stresses, positing that such strains can lead to criminal behavior as a means of coping or achieving success within a challenging environment.

Social Disorganization Theory

This theory asserts that crime is predominantly a result of specific social and environmental factors, including but not limited to poverty, family disruption, and a lack of community infrastructure.

Labeling Theory

A sociological framework suggesting that the labels or categories assigned to individuals can significantly influence their self-identity, behavior, and subsequent interactions with societal norms.

Restorative Justice Practices

These methods focus on facilitating reconciliation among victims, offenders, and the community, emphasizing dialogues and collective problem-solving as central components of the justice process.

Cultural Deficiency Model

This perspective attributes criminal behaviors to perceived inherent deficiencies or disadvantages within certain social or cultural groups, often leading to stigmatization and neglect of structural causes of crime.

Routine Activity Theory

An explanatory model of crime suggesting that criminal acts occur when a motivated offender finds a suitable target in the absence of adequate guardianship, highlighting the circumstances under which crime is most likely to occur.

Cognitive Behavioral Theory

A psychological framework that asserts cognitive processes shape behavior; in criminology, it is utilized to modify criminal behavior through understanding and altering dysfunctional thought patterns.

Environmental Criminology

This sub-discipline of criminology analyzes the interplay between crime and physical environments, investigating how geographical, social, and environmental factors influence criminal activities.

Policy Implications of Restorative Justice

This examines the potential effects and considerations of applying restorative justice practices within the broader framework of the criminal justice system, addressing challenges and benefits.

Social Capital

Social capital refers to the networks, relationships, and values that enable individuals and communities to work effectively together, playing a vital role in fostering community resilience and reducing crime.

Affirmative Action and Crime Prevention

These strategies aim to provide marginalized groups with equal access to opportunities, potentially lowering crime rates by addressing root causes of disenfranchisement and inequality.

Restorative Practices

A set of techniques aimed at healing and rebuilding relationships within the community post-crime, focusing on engaging all stakeholders in the restorative process.

Recidivism Rate

This term refers to the frequency with which individuals who have been previously incarcerated are arrested, convicted, or reincarcerated, often used as a measure of the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts.

Community Policing

A proactive law enforcement strategy aimed at fostering positive relationships between police officers and community members to collaboratively prevent crime and enhance community security.

Crisis Intervention

Targeted approaches designed to address urgent psychological crises faced by individuals, often employed within the context of criminal incidents to provide immediate support.

Community Resilience

The capacity of a community to withstand, adapt to, and recover from adverse events, including crime, by leveraging social networks and community resources.

Empathy in Restorative Justice

The ability to understand and resonate with the emotions of others, which plays a critical role in the restorative justice process, facilitating healing and understanding between victims and offenders.

Offender Rehabilitation

A range of programs and support systems designed to reform individuals who have committed crimes, aiming to reduce recidivism and promote successful reintegration into society.

Victim Impact Statements

These statements, delivered during sentencing, convey the emotional, psychological, and financial effects of the crime on the victim, providing the court with insight into the crime's broader impact.

Social Justice

A concept that advocates for the equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges in society, often intersecting with crime-related issues and the pursuit of equity within the legal system.

Peer Influence on Crime

The significant role that peers play in shaping an individual's likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior, impacting decision-making processes, and fostering delinquent conduct.

Restorative Justice Programming

Structured initiatives designed to facilitate restorative processes, such as victim-offender dialogues and community service projects, promoting reconciliation and healing.

Neighborhood Cohesion

This term highlights the strength of social ties and shared values among residents within a neighborhood, often correlating with lower crime rates and increased community safety.

Fear of Crime

An emotional and psychological response to perceived threats within a community, which can alter behavior patterns, lead to social withdrawal, and impact communal dynamics.

Cultural Identity and Crime

This field of study seeks to understand how cultural backgrounds shape behaviors associated with crime and influence societal perceptions of deviance.

Intergenerational Transmission of Crime

This concept describes the tendency for criminal behavior and associated patterns to be perpetuated across generations within families, often linked to social and environmental factors.

Mediation in Restorative Justice

A process involving facilitated dialogue where victims and offenders can communicate directly about the harm caused, fostering understanding and closure.

Systemic Inequality and Crime

An examination of how entrenched social inequalities, such as class and race disparities, contribute to crime rates and influence interactions with the criminal justice system.

Social Norms and Deviance

Cultural guidelines that outline acceptable behavior in society, which influence individuals' actions and result in the categorization of certain behaviors as deviant.

Impact of Media on Crime Perception

The influence that media practices and narratives have on public perceptions of crime, often exacerbating fears or misconceptions about crime rates and safety.

Youth Engagement in Crime Prevention

Strategies designed to involve young people in initiatives that aim to reduce crime in their communities, fostering responsibility and community ties.