Science and the Scientific Method Week 1

What is science?

Science is the process of describing the material universe through repeatable observations and hypothesis testing.

What are the two pillars of science?

The scientific method and publication/peer review.

What are repeatable observations?

Observations that can be replicated; repeatability refers to the observation, not necessarily the entire process that produced it.

Does something have to be replicated in a laboratory to be scientific?

No. Repeatability refers to the observation, not necessarily the process involved.

What is pseudoscience?

An endeavor that does not adhere to the scientific method.

What makes an endeavor unscientific according to the lecture?

It fails to adhere to the scientific method, does not rely on repeatable observations, does not use falsifiable hypotheses, or fails to follow peer review procedures.

Why is peer review important?

Peer review serves as quality control for scientific publications.

Why must scientific findings be communicated?

Scientific findings must be communicated so they can be examined and evaluated by other scientists.

What is a hypothesis?

An idea or proposition whose truth or falsehood is not initially known; a statement of pattern.

Is a hypothesis necessarily an educated guess?

No. A hypothesis is not necessarily an educated guess.

What is hypothesis testing?

Testing a hypothesis against observations or evidence to determine whether it is supported or contradicted.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be falsifiable?

There must be some possible observation or evidence that could show the hypothesis is false.

Can a hypothesis be proven?

No. Hypotheses cannot be proven; they can only be corroborated.

What happens to a non-falsifiable statement?

It is considered speculation rather than a scientific hypothesis.

What is a theory?

A universal explanation for a set of observations and hypotheses; generally a statement of process.

Do hypotheses become theories?

No. Hypotheses do not "become" theories.

What is the main difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

A hypothesis is a testable idea or statement of pattern, while a theory is a broad, universal explanation for observations and hypotheses.

What is a fact?

An observable piece of information or an idea confirmed to such an extent that dissent is unnecessary.

Can hypotheses and theories still be facts?

Yes. The lecture states that hypotheses and theories cannot be proven, but they can still be facts.

How do theories become accepted?

Through corroboration and consilience.

What is corroboration?

An increased amount of information supporting a theory.

What is consilience?

An increased diversity of sources of information supporting a theory.

What is the difference between corroboration and consilience?

Corroboration means more supporting information, while consilience means support from a greater diversity of information sources.

What is a paradigm?

A general framework or accepted way of explaining observations.

What is a paradigm shift?

A major change from one accepted scientific explanation or framework to another.

When can a paradigm shift occur?

When a simpler explanation is found or when increasing observations are inconsistent with the existing theory.

What is parsimony?

The preference for a simpler explanation when it adequately explains the evidence.

How can parsimony contribute to a paradigm shift?

A simpler explanation can replace a more complicated existing explanation.

What is one other reason a paradigm shift can occur?

An increasing number of observations may be inconsistent with the existing theory.

What is the main idea behind the scientific method?

Use observations and hypothesis testing to investigate explanations of the material universe.

What is one major strength of the scientific process?

Predictive power.

What is Scala Naturae?

The "Great Chain of Being," an old hierarchical view of organisms.

How did Scala Naturae affect early dinosaur research?

It encouraged scientists to view organisms as arranged in a hierarchy and influenced early interpretations of dinosaurs and evolution.

How did the idea of progressive evolution affect early dinosaur research?

It encouraged the interpretation of organisms as becoming progressively more advanced or "perfect."

Who was Georges Cuvier?

A scientist whose work on fossil vertebrates helped establish the reality of extinction.

What did Cuvier's work on Mosasaurus establish?

It helped establish the reality of extinction.

What is the most important thing to remember about Georges Cuvier?

Cuvier = extinction.

What is Dinosauria?

The group established by Richard Owen to include dinosaurs.

Who established Dinosauria?

Richard Owen.

When did Richard Owen establish Dinosauria?

1842.

Which dinosaurs were associated with Owen's establishment of Dinosauria?

Megalosaurus and Iguanodon.

What important feature did Megalosaurus and Iguanodon have?

They had an upright posture.

What is the most important thing to remember about Richard Owen?

Owen = Dinosauria, established in 1842.

What were the Bone Wars?

A rivalry between paleontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh over fossil and dinosaur discoveries.

Who were the two main scientists involved in the Bone Wars?

Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh.

Who was Edward Drinker Cope?

A paleontologist involved in the Bone Wars with Othniel Charles Marsh.

Who was Othniel Charles Marsh?

A paleontologist involved in the Bone Wars with Edward Drinker Cope.

When did the Bone Wars end?

By about 1900.

What continued after the Bone Wars ended?

Dinosaur and fossil collection in the western United States and Canada continued.

What was the "Golden Age" of dinosaur science?

A period roughly from 1870 to 1925 characterized by major dinosaur discoveries and research.

What started the Golden Age of dinosaur science?

The Bone Wars and the discovery of dinosaurs in the western United States.

What was the main reason Cope and Marsh became rivals?

They competed over fossil discoveries and scientific recognition.

What were the Central Asiatic Expeditions?

Expeditions led by Roy Chapman Andrews from 1920–1928 that explored the Gobi region.

Who led the Central Asiatic Expeditions?

Roy Chapman Andrews.

When did the Central Asiatic Expeditions take place?

1920–1928.

Where did the Central Asiatic Expeditions explore?

The Gobi region of present-day Mongolia and China.

What was the primary rationale for the Central Asiatic Expeditions?

The search for human origins.

What important dinosaur discoveries came from the Central Asiatic Expeditions?

The first dinosaur eggs and nests were discovered.

What type of expedition were the Central Asiatic Expeditions described as?

The first motorized paleontological expedition.

What is the most important thing to remember about Roy Chapman Andrews?

Andrews = Central Asiatic Expeditions, Gobi region, and dinosaur eggs/nests.

What was the Dinosaur Renaissance?

A major revival/change in dinosaur research and thinking that occurred from about 1970–1985.

When did the Dinosaur Renaissance occur?

About 1970–1985.

What happened before the Dinosaur Renaissance?

There was a period of relative inactivity in dinosaur research.

What scientist's work helped start the Dinosaur Renaissance?

John Ostrom's work on Deinonychus.

What dinosaur was especially important to the Dinosaur Renaissance?

Deinonychus.

What type of dinosaur was Deinonychus?

A small theropod.

What important similarity did Deinonychus have with birds?

It shared skeletal similarities with birds.

What did John Ostrom conclude about birds and dinosaurs?

He concluded that birds descended from dinosaurs.

What did Ostrom conclude about dinosaur activity and metabolism?

He concluded that dinosaurs were energetic and possibly warm-blooded.

How did the Dinosaur Renaissance change views of dinosaurs?

It encouraged scientists to view dinosaurs as more active and energetic rather than simply sluggish reptiles.

What is the most important thing to remember about John Ostrom?

Ostrom = Deinonychus, birds descended from dinosaurs, and the Dinosaur Renaissance.

What major discovery occurred in 1980 that advanced dinosaur research?

The discovery of an asteroid impact at the end of the Mesozoic.

What important discovery involving dinosaur eggs occurred around 1980?

Nests containing eggs and young were discovered, providing evidence for parental care.

What happened in 1985 that advanced dinosaur research?

Modern phylogenetic methods were applied to dinosaurs.

When were feathered dinosaurs first discovered in China?

1996.

Why are nests containing eggs and young important?

They provided evidence for parental care.

Why are feathered dinosaur discoveries important?

They provided new evidence about dinosaur biology and the relationship between dinosaurs and birds.

What is the basic timeline of the Golden Age of dinosaur science?

Roughly 1870–1925.

What is the basic timeline of the Dinosaur Renaissance?

1970–1985.

Who = extinction?

Georges Cuvier.

Who = Dinosauria?

Richard Owen.

Who = Bone Wars?

Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh.

Who = Central Asiatic Expeditions?

Roy Chapman Andrews.

Who = Deinonychus and Dinosaur Renaissance?

John Ostrom.

What does Cuvier → Mosasaurus → extinction mean?

Cuvier's work on Mosasaurus and other fossil vertebrates helped establish the reality of extinction.

What does Owen → Dinosauria → 1842 mean?

Richard Owen established the group Dinosauria in 1842.

What does Cope + Marsh → Bone Wars mean?

Cope and Marsh were rivals who competed over fossil and dinosaur discoveries.

What does Andrews → Gobi → eggs and nests mean?

Roy Chapman Andrews led expeditions into the Gobi region that discovered the first dinosaur eggs and nests.

What does Ostrom → Deinonychus → Renaissance mean?

John Ostrom's work on Deinonychus helped spark the Dinosaur Renaissance.

What are the three major advances in dinosaur research mentioned for 1980, 1985, and 1996?

1980: asteroid impact discovered; 1985: modern phylogenetic methods applied to dinosaurs; 1996: feathered dinosaurs discovered in China.

If a hypothesis cannot possibly be shown to be false, is it scientific?

No. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable.

If scientists find more and more evidence supporting a theory, what is this called?

Corroboration.

If a theory is supported by many different types of evidence, what is this called?

Consilience.

If a simpler explanation replaces a more complicated explanation, what scientific concept is involved?

Parsimony.

If many new observations contradict an existing theory, what could happen?

A paradigm shift could occur.

What is the difference between science and pseudoscience?

Science follows the scientific method and uses repeatable observations, falsifiable hypotheses, and peer review; pseudoscience fails to follow these principles.

What are the two biggest requirements emphasized for scientific ideas in the lecture?

They must be based on repeatable observations and falsifiable hypotheses.

What should you remember about "proving" scientific hypotheses and theories?

They cannot be proven; they can be supported/corroborated by evidence.