bio 1 final

biochemistry

How and for what specific purposes the uncountable numbers of chemicals cells are synthesized modified, and degraded

Cell biology

how cells stay, alive, function, reproduce, communicating, and keep their billions of internal molecules organized

molecular biology

How the information stored in DNA is used to synthesize RNA and proteins and the many ways this process is regulated in cells

Genetics

How scientist use observable traits of organisms to deduce information about their hereditary material

Evolution

What is the origin of life and how the diversification and adaptation of life forms takes place over time

Levels of biological organization

1. Biosphere

2. Ecosystem

3. Communities

4. Populations

5. Organisms

6. Organs

7. Tissues

8. Cells

9. Organelles

10. Molecules

Domains of life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Critical elements for biological functions

C, H, O, N

Needed in addition to CHON for DNA RNA

Phosphorus

Needed in addition to CHON for proteins

Sulfur

Needed as ions

Na, K, Cl, Ca

Needed as ionic cofactors

Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu

Utilized for other functions

Se, I, Mo, Sn, V, Si, B, Cr, Co, F

Trace elements

Required by an organism, although in extremely small quantities

Goiter

Iodine deficiency

Covalent bond

Occurs when two atoms share a pair of electrons

Very strong

Do not dissociate when a molecules dissolved in water

I typically broken only by an enzyme catalyzed reaction

What allows Surface tension and cohesion

Hydrogen bonding between water

Specific heat

Water with stain changes in the surrounding temperature due to high specific heat

Ice floats on water

Ice less dense than water, allowing it to float this is critical for aquatic life because it keeps bodies of water from freezing solid in the winter

Polarity

Water molecules have slight polarity

Why is carbon ideal element

Each carbon atom has four valence electrons and conform for simultaneous chemical bonds with other atoms

Carbon forms bonds, too strong to be broken by water less catalyze reaction occur occurs

Multiple carbon atoms can form complex chains and other structures

Phosphate

Component of ATP molecules, which serve as rechargeable batteries within a cell

CH3 methyl

Can be attached to protein to make them more hydrophobic when attached to DNA can silence entire genes

Major macromolecules

Proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates

Chain like molecules called biological polymers

Protein, nucleic acid, polysaccharide

Nucleic acid

Polymers built from monomers called nucleotides

Pyrimidines

6 member ring

Cytosine, thymine

Purines

Fusion of 5 member and 6 member rings

Adenine guanine

RNA characteristics

uracil Base is used in place of thymine base

The sugar ribose is used instead of deoxyribose

RNA normally forms single-stranded molecules

RNA molecules are much shorter than DNA molecules

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell characteristics

Enclosure by a semi permeable plasma membrane composed of amiphipathic lipid molecules

At least one DNA chromosome that contains genes

Molecular machineries for a replicating the chromosome

Molecular machinery for producing RNA

Ribosomes and TRNA which are molecular interpreters

Aqueous cytoplasm

Prokaryotes

All the contents of the cell, including DNA reside in the cytoplasm

Eukaryotic cell

Endoplasmic reticulum Account for approximately half the total membrane mass in cell

Smooth ER

Site of lipid synthesis and detoxification of many compounds

Rough ER

Site of synthesis for proteins that must be shipped to certain organelles the cell surface or fully out of the cell

Golgi apparatus

Central distribution and warehouse for proteins imported from the ER

Site of Most carbohydrate synthesis in the cell

Site of extensive oligosaccharide addition to certain proteins

Nucleus

Contains most of the cell gene

Nuclear envelope enclosures, the nucleus separating from the cytoplasm

Nuclear membrane is a double membrane. Each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer.

Membrane function

1. Transport

2. Enzymatic activity

3. Signal transduction

4. Cell cell recognition

5. Intercellular joining

6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

Membrane transport

A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selected for A particular solute

Other transport proteins, shuttle a substance from one side to the other by changing shape some of these proteins, hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the

Membrane enzymatic activity

A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.

In some cases several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.

Membrane signal transduction

A membrane protein may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical measure such as a hormone

The external messenger may cause a confirmational change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell

Membrane cell cell recognition

Some glycoprotein service identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells

Membrane intercellular joining

Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions such as cap, junctions or type junctions

Membrane attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

Microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins of function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilize the location of certain membrane proteins

Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi permeable membrane

Water diffusers across a semi permeable membrane from region of lower salute concentration to region of higher solute. Concentration into the solute is equal on both

Hypotonic

Too much water cell bursts

Isotonic

Equal

Hypertonic

Two little water cells shrivels up

Second law of thermodynamics

According to the second law of thermodynamics, every energy transfer or transformation, increases the entropy (Disorder) Of the universe

Where does heat come from?

Heat comes from the chemical bond, (chemical energy) of the food which breaks down and converts to heat energy

First law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and or transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

Exergonic reaction

Proceeds with a net release of free energy, which means change in energy for the reaction is negative

endergonic reaction

A reaction that absorbs free energy from it surroundings, which means change in energy is positive

Cellular respiration

Food molecules like glucose are used together with oxygen and cellular respiration to make cell energy in the form of ATP

Aerobic

Cellular processes require the use of oxygen as a substrate

Anaerobic

Oxygen is not needed for cellular processes

Cellular respiration equation

C6+H12+O6=6CO2+6H2O+36ATP

Oxidation

Loss of electron from one substance

Reduction

Gain of electron

When is ATP synthesized in cellular respiration

ATP is synthesized during cellular respiration through a series of processes including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation.

Interphase

Centrosome has been duplicated, but these two structures have not yet separated from each other. Replicated chromosomes are still loosely, packaged as chromatin

Prophase

The mitotic Spin over against farming as the two such own separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell

The chromosomes condense and the nucleolus disappears

Metaphase

The spindle fibers arrange all of the replicated chromosomes on the metaphase plate

Anaphase

The centromeres Splits and the sister chromatids are separated

Each DNA molecule Is now moved toward one of the two centrosomes located at the cell poles

Telophase

The cell continues to elongate as free spinal fibers from each centrosome continue pushing off each other the two poles now have equivalent sets of chromosomes, new nuclear envelopes, and nucleoli form and the spindle fully disassemble

Cytokinesis

The actual division of the cytoplasm and all its contents

Does not happen until mitosis is complete

In animal cells, cytokinesis requires a contractile ring

Interphase of meiosis

Outside the nucleus of animal cells two centrosomes are produced by the duplication of a single centrosome

Each centrosome contains a pair of centrioles

DNA condense

Chromosome replicate

meiosis

Sexual

Humans, animals, plants, fungi

For cells produced

Meiosis one meiosis two

Mitosis

Asexual

All organisms

Two cells

Cell division occurs once

phenotype

Visible characteristics

Genotype

Collection of genes

Alleles

Alternative versions of a gene

DNA replication

Semi conservative

The old strand and new strand remain together

Each strand serves a template for synthesis of a new strand

DNA polymerase

catalyzed by this holoenzyme to form new DNA strand

Codon

Triplet of nucleotides

Start codon

AUG

Stop codon

UAA, UAG, UGA

tRNA features

Carries specific amino acid

Contains in its base sequence an anticodon which base pairs with a specific codon on mRNA