Developments in education
Period of widening educational opportunities in Henry’s reign
Increase in grammar schools between 1460 and 1509
Grammar school curriculum was the study of latin
Suggesting in the 1480s saw the beginning of a humanistic approach
University education such as Oxford had experienced substantial expansion including foundation of new colleges in the first half of the 15th century
Lady Margaret Beaufort was responsible for the foundation of Christ’s College and St John’s College
Drama
Most popular art form of the time
Troupes of plays sometimes sponsored by nobility toured around the country
Most famous dramas were mystery plays performed at the feasts of Corpus Christi
Performances were important occasions in which churches, corporations and guilts combined in public celebrations
Music
Music underwent the beginnings of a ‘renaissance’
Most important surviving source for such music is the Eton Choirbook of around 1505
Composers represented in the Choirbook had links with the political establishment of Henry VII’s reign
As Robert Browne was employed in the household of the Earl of Oxford
Music performed at court or in the homes of the wealthy
Art and architecture
Vast number of churches built in the Gothic perpendicular style is an indication of the scale of investment that wook place
However by Henry’s death in 1509 humanist influences had reached England, particularly from Italty
Humanist scholars like Erasmus and Englishmen like Thomas More and John Colet became more fashionable
What was Humanism
A development of the Renaissance founded on the rediscovery of original Latin and Greek texts
Humanist scholars during Henry VII’s reign
William Grocyn, Thomas Linacre and Desiderius Erasmus
Humanism during Henry VII’s reign
Made little impression on England
England intellectual life continued to be dominated by traditional medieval scholastic philosophy
Which humanists considered to be old fashioned and too formal
blank
blank
Lollards
Small minority that were critical of the beliefs and practices of the Church
Founded by John Wycliffe in the 14th century, still found in Henry VII’s reign
Lollards placed stress on the understanding of the Bible and favoured its translation into English
Considered the Catholic Church to be corrupt
And denied the idea of the special status of the priesthood
Heresy definition
The denial of the validity of the key doctrines of the Church
Lollard views and heresy
Lollard views were considered heresy but were still persisted in south England
Lollards had become fewer in numbers by the start of Henry’s reign
Anticlericalism definition
Opposition to the Church’s role in political and other non-religious matters
Criticism of the Church
Often assumed that anticlericalism was widespread in late-medieval England
Anticlericalism was often politically motivated
Aquiring grace in order to reach heaven and minimising time spend in purgatory
Baptism
Confirmation - marked transition from childhood to adulthood
Marriage
Anointing of the sick
Penance
Holy Orders
Eucharist
To reach heaven, it was necessary to observe as many of these sacraments as possible
Mass
Central religious experience of the Catholic Church
Why was Mass important
It was a sacrifice performed by the priest on behalf of the community
It was a sacred ritual in which the whole community participated
Feast of Corpus Christi
Emphasised the importance of the consecrated bread
One of the most important festivals of the 15th century Church
Benefactors
The dying would often leave money to the parish church to reduce the time the benefactor would spend in purgatory
Would leave money for the foundation of chantries
Chapels where Masses for the souls of the dead took place
Confraternity
Groups of men who gathered together in association with the parish Church to provide money for funeral coasts, pay chaplains for Masses and to make charitable donations
These religious guilds were extremely popular
Wealthier guilds could be sources of local patronage and power
Pilgrimages
A way an individual could gain relief from purgatory
Could involve visiting the tomb of a saint
However there were vast numbers of pilgrimage sites
Rogation Sunday - pilgrimage to ward of evil spirits and reinforce the parish property
This event emphasises the importance of the parish as the key focus of local community
Importance of individual religious experience
Should not be underestimated despite religion being emphasised as a social activity
Henry VII’s mother, Margaret Beaufort believed in the personal communication of the individual with God
Monastic orders
Estimated that 1% of adult males in England by 1500 were monks living in monasteries
Oldest and most common religious order was the Benedictines who first devised monastic rule
The larger Benedictine houses fulfilled an important role in the community of also operating as cathedral churches
Other religious orders included Cistercians and Carthusians that were in rural areas
Large proportion of monks in the larger houses were drawn from the wealthier parts of society
Friars
Orders of the friars were supported by charitable donations
Consisted of the orders of the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and the Augustinians
However by the late 15th century, the great days of the friars were over, though various orders of the friars continued to received substantial bequests in the wills of the faithful
Nunneries
Between 1270 and the beginning of the dissolution of the monasteries there were approximately 130 nunneries in England
Most of them were Benedictine or Cisterian orders
Nunneries had less prestige than religious orders of the men
Majority of nunneries were poor and very small
Exception to this was the Bridgettine foundation at Syon which accommodated both women and men
blank
blank
Function of the Church
Theoretically all English people belonged to the Catholic Church and were under the jurisdiction of the Pope in Rome
Church provided the focus of entertainment
Church made it easier for the social and political elites to maintain social control through its encouragement of good behaviour
Provided employment and the opportunity to advance themselves socially through the attainment of high office in Church and State
The political role of the Church
Significant in both international relations and in domestic matters
Highest role in the Church was held by the Pope
However the king was firmly in control and popes were generally eager to grant the demandsof the king
The papacy didn’t object to how Henry used the Church’s wealth to reward other churchmen in high political offices
How the English Church was administered
Administered through two provinces - Canterbury and York
Each under the jurisdiction of an archbishop each under the control of a bishop
It was common in the late 15th century for senior churchment to enjoy positions of significant influence and power within the kingdom
Clergy
Common for senior clergy to participate at a high level in the political process
The two churchmen who exercised the most power under Henry VII were John Morton and Richard Fox
Prices in the final years of the fifteenth century
Apart from a temporary rise in the 1480s, prices seemed to have remained steady
Wages in the final years of the fifteenth century
Available evidence suggests wages also remained steady
Export prices in the final years of the fifteenth century
Decline in the export price of wool in the 1490s
Decline in the price of grain and animal products in the 1490s
Might imply a reduction in farming profitability but also rising real incomes for domestic consumers
Craftsmen and agricultural labourers
One the whole better off during the 1490s than they would be at any other time during the Tudor period.
Reasons for rebellions in this period
Taxation
However living conditions for the poor appeared to be improving, real wages had increased
However at this time inflationary pressures were increasing
The Yorkshire rebellion (1489)
Sparked by the resentment of the taxation granted by Parliament in 1489 - to finance English forces in the Breton Crisis
Became notorious due to the rebels murdering the Earl of Northumberland in April of that year
Details of this rebellion are sparse
Northumberland was a ‘victim of resentment against taxation’
Murdered by his tenants, but what enabled them to murder him was the fact that the Earl’s retainers allowed them to do so by deserting him in his hour of need
Punishment for the Earl deserting Richard III at Bosworth
The Cornish rebellion (1497)
Also triggered by same reasons of Yorkshire - but Cornish was triggered by the need for revenue to finance the campaign against Scotland
Posed a much greater threat to the stability of Henry’s rule - despite Yorkshire rebels murdering a high-profile political figure
Reasons why Cornish rebellion was a greater threat than Yorkshire
The numbers in the Cornish rebellion (15,000 estimate)
Their attempt to exploit the rebellion made by Warbeck
The fact that the rebels marched on London, only being halted at Blackheath
Why the Cornish rebellion was alarming to the king
It was a cause for immense concern for the Crown that the rebels marched such a long distance without any serious attempt being made to stop them
Raised questions about how effective the Crown’s systems of maintaining order in the countryside were
The rebels reaching London were in effect challenging the security of Henry VII’s regime
How Henry suppressed the Cornish rebellion
Had to withdraw Lord Daubeney and his troops from defending the Scottish border
Meant this put England at risk from Scotland
Although rebellion was easily crushed by Daubeney
Rebel leaders were executed by order of Daubeney
However Henry only punished the leaders, treated bulk of rebels with conspicuous leniency
Rebellion shocked Henry into ensuring that Anglo-Scottish tensions were eased and made him particularly cautious about entering into any further foreign conflicts
Elements of agriculture and trade
The agrarian (crop) economy / farming
The cloth trade
Industrial activities (weaving, brewing, mining)
The agrarian economy
Income from land declined in the aftermath of the Black Death in the 1300s + the early 1400s
There was a greater move towards sheep farming in the 1480s and 1490s
Reflection of the depressed profit of crop farming + the improved profits of sheep farming by the increasing demand of wool due to growing population + overseas cloth trade
The agrarian economy / farming across England
England was divided into a ‘lowland zone’ - south and east and a ‘highland zone’ - north and west
Mixed farming was in the lowland zone, with pastoral farming in woodland areas
Traditional system of open-field husbandry was only in the grain growing areas of the southeast and east midlands
How agriculture changed at the end of the fifteenth / beginning of the sixteenth century
Increased profits and production of sheep farming resulted in peasants losing access to their land and common rights
This became widespread in the first half of the sixteenth century
Created both a moral outcry and political pressures that were difficult to contain
The cloth trade
90% of the value of English exports
Estimated that there was over 60% increase in the volume of cloth exports during Henry VII’s reign
Originally exported by the Merchants of the Staple - but lost importance in 1363
Finished cloth dominated the trade - led to weaving, fulling and dyeing becoming commercial enterprises
Meaning offered opportunities for rural employment from land loss
Exported through the Merchant Adventurers - reinforced London’s commercial dominance + a commercial axis with Antwerp
English cloth was then transported all over Europe
Other industries
England remained dependent on cloth industry - as their other industries remained small and couldn’t compete with their continental competitors
Germany was superior in mining
Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch was superior in shipbuilding
England’s mining was only small-scale
Coal in England was shipped from the Newcastle to meet growing fuel demands in London (domestic + industrial)
Also a small coal export trade to Germany and the Netherlands
Trade laws and treaties
Biggest issue with trade during Henry’s reign was his embargo (ban) on trade with the Netherlands in 1493
Imposed this due to fear and insecurity of Margaret of Burgundy’s support for Warbeck
This embargo ended with the treaty Intercursus Magnus
In 1503 the claim of the Earl of Suffolk was being taken seriously around Burgundy, and Henry tried to reimpose the embargo, then negotiated the Intercursus Malus in 1506
Navigation Acts of 1485 and 1489 - tried to encourage English shipping by ensuring only English ships should carry certain products to and from English ports
Had limited usefulness as foreign vessels still transported a proportion of English exports
Hanseatic League
Largely successful in limiting the development of English trading interests in the Baltic
English sailors
Were slow to engage in the great exploration during the fifteenth century
Bristol merchants were interested in transatlantic discovery
John Cabot
Arrived in Bristol in either 1494 or 1495
Cabot received authorisation from Henry VII to ‘search out any isles, countries, regions or provinces’
Sailed in 1497, located what became known as Newfoundland
Then never returned from his second voyage in 1498
William Weston
May have in 1499 or 1500 set foot on the American mainland, which Cabot never did
Even if he didn’t make it he was the first Englishman to lead an expedition to the New World
Sebastian Cabot
John Cabot’s son
Didn’t gain sponsorship from Henry, but led an unsuccessful attempt to find the ‘north-west passage’ to Asia in 1508
Other elements of exploration / English exploration
Spanish and Portuguese explorers opened up much of the world
English exploration of the north Atlantic tailed off with the accession of Henry VII - had little interest in supporting this enterprise
Agricultural differences
East of England was mainly mixed farming, with some pastoral farming
West of England was pastoral farming, with a small amount of grain framing and fruit growing
England’s opinions on regional differences
Londoners looked down upon northerners for their perceived savagery
Northerners were envious of southern riches
Other ways regional identity was enforced
through local government structures
Justice was administered more at a county level, and county towns contained jails and major churches
On the other hand, magnate influence often cut across boundaries of counties
Local identities also reinforced by saints’ cults - which placed importance on centres of pilgrimage, such as Canterbury and Durham
blank
blank
Nobility’s role in society
Dominated landownership
50-60 men in peerage / one of the 5 ranks of aristocracy (nobility members)
When members died, Henry was reluctant to create new peerage titles as he was distrustful of the nobility
The extent of Henry’s control over the nobility
Henry tried to control the nobility through bonds and recognizances
However the key to nobles’ power was the retaining system
Wealthy magnates (wealthiest nobility members) recruited knights and gentlemen (retainers) to serve them for multiple purposes (administration, military and more)
How Henry stopped retainers
Noblemen could use their retained men against the Crown or influence others in a court case
Henry used legislation against retaining to prevent most of these - would have to be authorised if a noble wanted to use retainers
As loyal retainers were still essential to maintain Crown security
Official laws and examples of retaining
1486 - peers / MPs took an oath against illegal retaining
1487 - a law against retaining was officially put in place
This law was reinforced by an Act passed in 1504 - stating you could only retain with a license
These stopped Lord Bergavenny in 1506 - who abused the retaining system for himself
Gentry’s role in society
Important members included Sir Reginald Bray
Gentry were gentlemen who lived in large country houses + provided armies for war
Peers + knights owned around 20% of the countries land
By the end of the 15th century, it became easier to define who were part of the gentry and not just random landowners
Eldest sons of knights, youngest sons of barons, magistrates and others of wealth
Churchmen’s role in society
Archbishops, bishops, clergymen (high-lower status)
Social status of clergy varied enormously
Lower - curates and chantry priests were rewarded for dealing with spiritual needs of ordinary folk
However bishops and abbots of larger religious houses were seen as important political figures
Who were entitled to sit in the House of Lords
Henry exploiting his power over the church
Martin V, Pope from 1417-1431 had declared that the King of England would govern the English Church rather than the Pope himself
Henry VII exploited this power
Only appointed men with legal training as bishops - rather than men who valued spirituality
Two important clergymen of his reign were John Morton + Richard Fox (more legal trained than spiritual)
Commoners’ role in society
Below the nobility, gentry, and higher clergy
Higher scale of the commoners were lawyers, who had considerable influence and often collaborated with wealthier influence
Lower scale, yet still respectable, were the shopkeepers and tradesmen
Played a key role in organisations such as guilds
Dominated town councils and urban life pre-Reformation England
Yeomen, husbandmen and labourer’s role in society
Yeomen and husbandmen are both described as ‘peasants’
Labourers were dependent for their income on the sale of their labour
Both had insecure positions
Henry's heirs
1486 - his son Prince Arthur was born
1491 - Prince Henry was born
What Henry’s dynasty depended on
The survival of Henry VII himself until his son was old enough to rule
However Henry’s health deteriorated rapidly from Feb 1509 and he died on 21 April
Importance of marriage alliances
Essential part of international diplomacy during this period
All monarchs sought marriage alliances in order to enhance their power and influence
This was important for Henry VII to obtain marriage alliances in order to gain dynastic security
Marriage alliances involving Prince Arthur
Henry wanted to maintain an alliance with Spain through a marriage alliance of Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon (Ferdinand’s daughter)
However Arthur died
Marriage alliances involving Princess Margaret
Marriage alliance with King James IV of Scotland
Strengthened alliances with Scotland and weakened the threat of Warbeck
Marriage alliances with H7 himself
Tried to remarry in a marriage alliance after his wife Elizabeth died
Nothing ever happened with this as most princesses were reluctant to marry Henry
Henry lost enthusiasm for marriage alliances after this
Maintenance of law and order
One of the King’s main responsibilities was the maintenance of law and order
Problems with this could lead to uprisings / rebellions
Henry was always concerned that enemies might exploit trouble to challenge his authority
He relied on nobility to exercise power on his behalf, yet had to be careful that nobles wouldn’t become too powerful and challenge his authority
Problems with law and order
Number of magnates had been reduced during the Wars of the Roses
Magnate control was confined to the north of England
Left Henry in 1489 without a great magnate to exercise his power on his behalf due to the deaths of some of them
How Henry dealt with law and order problems
Released the Yorkist Earl of Surrey from the tower to rule the north for him - risky but Surrey proved his loyalty through effective service for 10 years
Had to rely on those who he trusted i.e Earl of Oxford and Lord Daubeney, although lacked the qualities of a Magnate
Had to employ a spying network to report on magnate performance of those he did not trust
JPs and bonds and recognizances
Justices of the peace
Henry relied on the JPs to maintain law and order on a local level - especially in the countryside
Met 4 times a year to administer justice
JPs were mainly local gentry who hoped this would open the path to greater advancement or local prestige
Various Acts of Parliament were passed to increase the powers and responsibilities of the JPs
Increased responsibilities included routines of tax assessments, investigating complaints against local officials, and maintenance of law + order
Bonds and recognizances
Henry VII restored law and order largely through forcing many of his subjects to take out bonds and recognizances
Some of which were the result of genuine debts owed to the Crown, however many were purely political
Henry wished to have ‘many persons in danger at his pleasure
Meant that bonds could enforce order and obedience, and defeat the law
Sources of royal income
Crown lands
Profits from feudal dues and the exercise of the royal prerogative
Customs revenue
Pensions from other powers
Profits of justice
extraordinary revenue
Views on Henry VII’s finances
Reluctantly threw money around unlike many other rulers
Transformed the royal finances in order to leave a vast amount of money to his son, Henry VIII
Henry’s finances from crown lands at the start of his reign
Income at the beginning of H7’s reign had dropped to around 12,000 per year
Due to income from lands being collected + administered through ineffective Court of Exchequer
Shows Henry’s initial inexperience in financial matters
How Henry developed crown land finances
Reverting to Edward’s system of administration through the Chamber in around 1492
Improved finances significantly
Income from land increased to around £42,000 per year at the end of his reign
Partly due to Chamber treasurers, Sirs Thomas Lovell and John Heron
Feudal dues and exercise of the royal prerogative
Pursuit of the king’s feudal rights was tightened
Increased profits from wardship (property held by a minor)
Parliament granted feudal aid in 1504 (impose tax on tenants for knighting of eldest son or marriage of eldest daughter)
Other sources of revenue
Customs revenue - tonnage and poundage got granted for life - increasing from £34,000 annually to £38,000
Treaty of Etaples - gave Henry an annual £5,000 from France
Profits of justice - promised money from fines + incomes - 1504-1507 estimated around £200,000 promised, but not all was collected
Extraordinary revenue - received over £400,000 from extraordinary taxation - however method provoked rebellions in 1489 +1497 - had to promise to stop using Parliamentary taxes.
Why Henry wanted to maintain positive foreign relations
Ensure national security
Recognition of the Tudor dynasty
Ensure the defence of English trading interests
Relations with Brittany and France - The Breton Crisis
1487 - France may gain complete control of Brittany
Henry used extraordinary revenue to fund an army against the French
He feared that direct French control of Brittany would increase a potential French threat to England
The signing of the Treaty of Etaples stopped the invasion of France / Brittany
Treaty meant Charles VIII withdrew French support of Warbeck, and had to pay Henry a pension for his army expenses
Relations with Burgundy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire
Bulk of English exports went through Netherlands
This came under Burgundy jurisdiction
There H7 needed good relations with them, but MoB was a problem
As Margaret provided troops for Simnel, and supported Warbeck
As a result Henry placed a trade embargo between England and Burgundy trading
Conflicts between England and Burgundy were largely resolved with the Intercursus Magnus 1496, ended the trade embargo
Relations with Spain
Treaty of Medina del Campo
Treaty offered mutual protection, no harbouring of enemies, and a marriage alliance between his son and Catherine of Aragon
Alliance failed when son Arthur died, and Ferdinand was reluctant to agree to remarry Catherine with H7’s second son
Ferdinand became regent of Castile after Phillip of Burgundy’s death (was married to his daughter), which reversed Henry’s attempts of getting a stronger relationship through Treaty of Windsor (1506)
Left Henry diplomatically outsmarted
Relations with Scotland
Scotland originally were supporting Perkin Warbeck
Henry stopped this with a marriage alliance between King James IV and his daughter, Princess Margaret
Formalised in the 1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace, marriage in 1503
Secure relations with Scotland continued until the end of his reign
Relations with Ireland
Henry’s power didn’t extend through much of Ireland
Dominant figure was the Earl of Kildare
Henry feared him as he had Yorkist sympathies
Kildare supported Lambert Simnel, and crowned him King of Ireland in 1486 + Supported Warbeck
To try and gain control of Ireland, Prince Henry was appointed as Lieutenant of Ireland
Henry made Irish Parliament pass a law which meant they couldn’t pass laws without English approval (Poynings Law) in 1495
After all this Kildare decided he was no longer benefiting from supporting Yorkists, and decided to serve Henry instead
Outline of Henry’s parliament
Consisted of the House of Commons and the House of Lords
Existed since the 13th Century
Only met occasionally - not central to the system of gov
Two main functions - to pass laws and to grant taxation to the crown
Additional function in which local issues could be passed on to King’s officials by local MPs
House of Lords and House of Commons
House of Lords - Lords Spiritual (i.e Bishops) and the Lords Temporal (the Nobility), more important than the House of Commons
House of Commons - 2 MPs for each County, 2 MPs for each borough, and representatives of the two unis (Oxford and Cambridge)
Right to vote was largely restricted to men of property
Henry VII’s role within Parliament
Only the King could call Parliament
Henry demonstrated his right to rule by calling his first parliament early in his reign
Called parliament a total of 7 times
Early parliaments were largely concerned with national security issues and raising of revenue
What happened in each parliament called
First 2 - passed numerous Acts of Attainders - declared individuals guilty without trial - having to give money / property to the Crown
1 - Tonnage and poundage (customs revenues) for life
Others - extraordinary revenue, taxation granted to enable the king to fund wars
The most useful extraordinary revenue imposed was fifteenths and tenths from 1487 - 1497 bringing in £203,000
Parliament overall
Operated effectively
King respected Parliaments decisions - even when the final parliament had to limit extraordinary revenue demand - meaning the King couldn’t seek more revenue through these means
Number of private acts in response to local demands
Meaning there was little evidence that Henry tried to operate Parliament himself through his ministers
Main functions of the Council
To advise the king
To administer the realm on the king’s behalf
To make legal judgements
What was the King’s Council
The king ruled with a ‘council’ of advisers who supported him in making key decisions
227 men recorded as having attended
But Henry VII’s actual working Council was smaller with around 6 or 7 members
What types of councillors were there
Members of the nobility - although rarely included (such as Lords Daubeney and Dynham)
Churchmen - legal training + skilled administrators (such as John Morton and Richard Fox)
Laymen - gentry or lawyers (Sir Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley)
Rules in the Council
Had no established rules / procedures
Although was a permanent body
To deal with key concerts without the King present, different members met simultaneously in different places
Importance of the Council depended on key members (Sir Reginald Bray) and its offshoot, the Council Learned
It wasn’t essential to be a councillor in order to advise the King
Henry’s key adviser was someone who held no office, his mother.
The Council Learned
Main offshoot of the Council
First formed under Bray
Function was to maintain the King’s revenue and exploit his prerogative rights
Did this through the bonds and recognisances system which effectively trapped his subjects
Workings of the Council Learned are arguably shady as it wasn’t recognised court of law and those summoned to it couldn’t appeal
How the Council Learned was seen by the public
Caused fear, frustration and anger
However it was the expression of the King’s will, therefore important to maintain his authority and raising of finances
Empson and Dudley’s approach after Bray died created enemies out of Henry’s other key advisers, i.e Fox and Lovell, due to being more ruthless and raising the amount of money extracted from the King’s subjects
The two got removed after H7’s death, resulted in joy on the streets, shows how unpopular the Council Learned’s financial control was.
Court and Household
The centre of government
Found wherever the King was at any given time
Where the monarch’s power was most demonstrated to attending courtiers
Where the support of the king could be obtained, useful in legal problems