CH 08: Violent Offending - General Violence and Homicide

What is the key difference between reactive and instrumental violence?

• Reactive violence = impulsive response to real or perceived provocation or threat.

• Instrumental violence = premeditated, goal-oriented, used as a means to an end.

What are other common terms for reactive violence?

Affective, impulsive, or hostile violence.

What are other common terms for instrumental violence?

Predatory, premeditated, or proactive violence.

What is a classic example of reactive violence?

A man who assaults his spouse’s lover after finding them together — impulsive, emotionally charged, and unplanned.

What is a classic example of instrumental violence?

A woman who plans to rob an elderly man outside a bank and uses violence only to get money — calculated and goal-driven.

What is the main emotional difference between reactive and instrumental violence?

Reactive involves anger and loss of control; instrumental involves calculation and control.

What are the four types of homicide recognized in Canada?

1. First-degree murder

2. Second-degree murder

3. Infanticide

4. Manslaughter

What qualifies as first-degree murder?

• Planned and deliberate murder, or

• Murder of a peace officer, or

• Murder during terrorist activity or other specified offences.

What is the sentence for first-degree murder?

Life imprisonment with no parole eligibility for 25 years (and consecutive 25-year terms for multiple counts).

What is second-degree murder and its sentence?

Any murder not classified as first-degree; life imprisonment with no parole eligibility for 10 years.

How is infanticide defined under the Criminal Code (s. 233)?

A female causes the death of her newborn child while her mind is disturbed from the effects of childbirth or lactation.

What is the maximum sentence for infanticide?

Five years imprisonment.

When can a murder be reduced to manslaughter?

• Committed in the heat of passion or after sudden provocation, or

• When death results from criminal negligence.

What is the sentence for manslaughter?

Life imprisonment, but no minimum term for parole eligibility.

What is the general definition of multiple murder?

The killing of three or more victims.

What are the three main types of multiple murder?

1. Mass murder – multiple victims, single location, no cooling-off period.

2. Spree murder – multiple victims, multiple locations, no cooling-off period.

3. Serial murder – multiple victims, with cooling-off periods between killings.

What distinguishes serial murder from other multiple murders?

It includes a cooling-off period between killings, reflecting psychological re-engagement between murders.

What does assault involve?

The unlawful physical aggression or threat of aggression toward another person.

What are the three levels of assault in Canada?

• Level 1 (Common assault): Pushing, slapping, punching, or face-to-face verbal threats.

• Level 2: Assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm.

• Level 3: Aggravated assault (maiming, disfiguring, endangering life).

What other types of assault exist beyond the three main levels?

Assaulting a peace officer and pointing a firearm.

How is robbery defined?

A violent offence involving theft with actual or threatened use of violence (weapon or threats) to overcome resistance.

How is terrorism defined under the Canadian Criminal Code (RSC 1985, c C-46)?

Acts or threats of violence committed:
(a) for political, religious, or ideological purposes, and
(b) intended to intimidate the public or compel action from a person, government, or organization, within or outside Canada.

Does terrorism always involve direct violence?

No — it can include threats or acts of intimidation even without physical harm.

Is there a formal definition of hate crime in the Canadian Criminal Code

No — classification as a hate crime is at the sentencing judge’s discretion.

How does Statistics Canada define hate crime?

A criminal violation motivated by hate toward a person’s race, ethnicity, language, religion, sex, age, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity/expression.

Which groups are most frequently targeted by hate crimes in Canada?

• Race/Ethnicity: Black persons

• Religion: Jewish and Muslim persons

• Sexual Orientation: Sexual minorities (with 41% increase from 2018–2019)

What is the general trend of violence in Canada over the decades?

Overall decreasing, despite occasional fluctuations (e.g., uptick in 2014).

Which provinces have the highest homicide rates?

Saskatchewan and Manitoba (about 2.5× the national average).

What major event caused Nova Scotia’s homicide rate spike in 2020?

The Gabriel Wortman mass shooting spree (22 victims, April 2020).

How have robbery and major assault rates changed over the last decade?

• Robbery: steady decline.

• Major assault: variable — peaked in 2007–2008, declined, then slightly increased again.

What percentage of total reported crime in 2019 were hate crimes?

Less than 0.1%, but the rate increased from 2009–2019.

How do violent recidivism rates compare to general recidivism rates?

General recidivism is roughly double violent recidivism rates.

What general trends were observed in recidivism between cohorts?

Both violent and general recidivism decreased by about one third.

Who is more likely to commit violent offences — men or women?

Men, though rates of violent victimization are similar for both genders.

What type of violence are men and women most likely to experience?

• Men → non-sexual violence.

• Women → sexual violence.

Who are violent crimes most often committed by: strangers or known individuals?

Slightly more likely by someone known to the victim (friend or acquaintance).

What characteristics are associated with higher violent victimization?

Being young, single, BIPOC, urban-dwelling, and socially active at night.

What proportion of violent crimes cause physical injury?

About 1 in 5.

What proportion of victims report difficulty functioning afterward?

About 1 in 4.

What mental health effects are linked to violent victimization (Rivera et al., 2019)?

Increased anxiety, depression, PTSD, and suicidal ideation.

What physical health effects are linked to violent victimization?

Greater risk for cardiovascular disease and premature death.

What is the central premise of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory regarding aggression?

Aggression is learned and is more likely to occur when it is expected to be more rewarding than non-aggressive alternatives.

According to Bandura, what makes aggression unique compared to other social behaviors?

Aggression doesn’t require willing participation from others—it can benefit the aggressor even if the victim resists (e.g., obtaining resources, dominance, control).

What are the two main learning mechanisms in Social Learning Theory?

1. Operant conditioning – learning through reinforcement and punishment.

2. Observational learning – learning by observing others’ behaviors and their outcomes.

Give examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment in aggression.

• Positive reinforcement: Child hits another to get a toy → gets the toy.

• Negative reinforcement: Punching a bully stops ridicule → removal of aversive state.

• Positive punishment: Aggressive act leads to scolding by parent.

• Negative punishment: Aggression leads to exclusion from an activity.

What is self-reinforcement in Social Learning Theory?

It refers to self-administered rewards or punishments after aggression. A positive self-evaluation (feeling powerful) increases aggression likelihood, while guilt reduces it.

What cognitive factors mediate reinforcement influences in aggression?

Attention, perception, memory, and expectancies about reinforcement outcomes.

What is the core idea of the Biosocial Model of Violence?

Violence results from interactions between biological and social forces, each contributing risks and protective factors throughout life.

How do genetic and environmental factors interact in violence risk?

Genetic predispositions for violence are amplified in negative social environments (e.g., criminal, abusive, or disadvantaged homes). Both biological and social risks must be considered together.

What example illustrates gene–environment interaction in adoption studies?

Adopted children with biological and adoptive parents involved in antisocial behavior are ~8 times more likely to become criminally violent than those with neither risk.

What biological correlates are linked to antisocial behavior?

• Low resting heart rate → autonomic underarousal (fearlessness).

• Low skin conductance → reduced emotional reactivity.

• Minor physical anomalies, prenatal nicotine/alcohol exposure, birth complications, and brain dysfunction (especially prefrontal cortex, right hemisphere).

What do fearlessness and stimulation-seeking theories suggest?

• Fearlessness theory: Low arousal reduces fear of punishment → more risk-taking.

• Stimulation-seeking theory: Low arousal leads to seeking excitement and antisocial acts to feel stimulated.

What are examples of protective factors in the Biosocial Model?

• Biological: Normal neurological function, high heart rate, good autonomic response.

• Social: Warm, caring family, good parental stability, positive environment.

What does Raine suggest about children from “normal” homes who become violent?

When social risk factors are absent, biological factors play a stronger explanatory role.

What are the two main pathways to criminal violence in this model?

1. Neurodevelopmental Pathway: Brain trauma or early developmental issues + antisocial parenting.

2. Psychopathy Pathway: Presence of psychopathy + antisocial parenting.

What are the main limitations of the Two Path Model?

• Doesn’t explain the origins of psychopathy.

• The two pathways are not mutually exclusive—both can co-occur.

What does GPCSL say about violent behavior?

Violence is learned through social learning processes and reinforced by exposure to antisocial role models who normalize or reward violence.

How do antisocial role models contribute to violent learning?

They teach, model, and reinforce antisocial attitudes and behaviors, provide little supervision, and fail to punish aggression—making violence a learned response to problems.

What are examples of how violent behavior becomes habitual?

• Misinterpreting neutral situations as hostile.

• Using violence as a “go-to” solution for problems or conflicts.

• Viewing violence as justified or rewarding.

What underlying vulnerabilities contribute to violent development in this model?

• Personal/interpersonal: Poor socialization, conduct issues.

• Environmental: Family conflict, disadvantaged neighborhoods.

• Biological: Temperament, male gender, neurodevelopmental factors.

What is the main goal of violence risk assessment research?

To identify factors that predict future violent acts, especially in individuals with past violence.

What method helps aggregate results from multiple studies on violence predictors?

Meta-analysis—combines findings from many studies for more generalizable results.

What are static factors that predict violence?

• Young age

• Single marital status

• Criminal history (especially prior violence)
  These reflect the principle that past behavior predicts future behavior.

What are key dynamic factors associated with violent recidivism?

• Procriminal attitudes

• Poor education/employment

• Negative peers

• Antisocial personality/psychopathy

• Substance abuse problems

Why are certain mental health issues considered “responsivity factors” rather than risk factors?

Conditions like anxiety, depression, or low IQ don’t strongly predict violence but can affect treatment engagement and management.

What are protective factors against violent recidivism?

• Internal: Self-control, positive coping.

• Motivational: Treatment motivation, life goals.

• External: Supportive social network, stable relationships.

What is the main implication of studying protective factors?

They help identify strengths to reduce recidivism risk and promote rehabilitation, balancing focus away from risk alone.

What are the four main approaches to violence risk assessment?

1. Unstructured Clinical Judgment

2. Empirical Actuarial

3. Mechanical

4. Structured Professional Judgment (SPJ)
   (Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2009)

What differentiates static from dynamic risk factors?

• Static factors: Unchangeable historical characteristics (e.g., age, past violence).

• Dynamic factors: Changeable attributes (e.g., attitudes, substance use, coping skills).

Which assessment instruments are empirical actuarial, and which are structured professional judgment (SPJ)?

• Empirical actuarial: VRAG-R, VRS

• Structured professional judgment (SPJ): HCR-20, VERA

What is the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide-Revised (VRAG-R) designed to do?

Estimate risk for violent recidivism using 12 static predictors of violence.

How is the VRAG-R scored?

• Items are summed into a total score.

• Total scores are grouped into nine risk categories (bins).

• Higher scores = higher risk of violent recidivism.

What are the reliability and predictive accuracy statistics for VRAG-R?

• Inter-rater reliability: ICC = .99 (very high).

• Predictive accuracy: AUC = .68 (moderate).

What is the Historical Clinical Risk-20 (HCR-20) and its purpose?

An SPJ instrument for assessing violence risk using 20 items across 3 categories:

• H: Historical (static, past factors)

• C: Clinical (dynamic, current functioning)

• R: Risk management (future circumstances)

What are examples of each HCR-20 category?

• Historical: Prior violence, antisocial behavior, substance abuse, trauma.

• Clinical: Lack of insight, violent ideation, major mental illness, instability.

• Risk Management: Living situation, support systems, stress, supervision.

How is scoring handled in HCR-20 V3?

Each item rated for Presence (yes/maybe/no) and Relevance (importance for risk).
Final outcome = Summary Risk Rating (SRR) of low, moderate, or high.

What are the reliability and validity stats for HCR-20?

• Inter-rater reliability (ICCs): Historical = .94, Clinical = .86, Total = .94

• Predictive accuracy: AUC = .71 (moderate)

• Convergent validity: Strong correlations with VRAG-R (r = .85) and VRS (r = .77).

What is the purpose of the Violence Risk Scale (VRS)?

Assess baseline risk, identify criminogenic needs, plan treatment, and track change over time.

How is the VRS structured and scored?

• 6 static items (e.g., age, violence history).

• 20 dynamic items (e.g., attitudes, emotional control, weapon use).

• Each scored 0–3; higher = greater risk.

• Total score (0–78) → categorized into 5 risk levels.

How does the VRS use the Transtheoretical Model of Change?

Dynamic items are rated by stage of change:

1. Precontemplation

2. Contemplation

3. Preparation

4. Action

5. Maintenance

Change scores are derived from progression through stages (risk reduction is calculated numerically).

What are the reliability and predictive validity stats for VRS?

• Inter-rater reliability: ICC = .82–.98

• Predictive accuracy: AUC = .65 (moderate)

• Correlations: HCR-20 (r = .76–.83); PCL-R (r = .83).

What is the Violent Extremist Risk Assessment (VERA) used for?

SPJ guide for assessing risk of violent terrorist acts.

What are the five VERA sections?

1. Attitude/Mental Perspective

2. Contextual Factors

3. Historical Factors

4. Protective Factors

5. Demographic Factors

Has the VERA’s predictive accuracy been validated?

No — Pressman (2009) advised research use only until predictive validity is established.

According to Yang, Wong, & Coid (2010), how do different instruments compare in predictive accuracy?

• All tools show moderate predictive accuracy (AUC and Cohen’s d).

• No significant differences between instruments.

• Static tools predict well but lack treatment direction; dynamic tools inform interventions.

Which PCL-R factor best predicts violent recidivism?

• Factor 2 (antisocial lifestyle) — significantly predicts violence.

• Factor 1 (interpersonal/affective traits) — weak predictor.

What are the three categories of treatment approaches according to Olver & Stockdale (2018)?

• What works:

  • Comprehensive multi-intervention programs (e.g., Violence Reduction Program)

  • Target multiple criminogenic needs using RNR principles.

• What might work:

  • Trauma-focused, animal-assisted, yoga, meditation, therapeutic communities.

• What does not work:

  • Programs lacking RNR foundation or using unethical methods (e.g., boot camps, shaming).

What is “correctional quackery”?

Programs that appear effective by “common sense” but lack empirical support (e.g., scared straight, aura focus therapy).

What are two main methods to evaluate treatment effectiveness for violence reduction?

1. Pre-post outcome designs: Assess change in dynamic risk scores (e.g., VRS) before and after treatment.

2. Meta-analysis of controlled studies: Compare treated vs. untreated recidivism rates.

What were the findings from Lewis et al. (2013) and Coupland & Olver (2020a) on VRS change?

• Participants showed significant pre-post reductions in VRS scores.

• Risk reduction correlated with decreased violent recidivism.

What did Dowden & Andrews (2000) find about treatment vs. sanctions?

• Treatment: Reduced violent recidivism (r = .12).

• Sanctions: No effect (r = –.01).

• Programs adhering to RNR principles had greater reductions.

How do adherence levels to RNR principles affect outcomes?

• 0 principles: r = .01

• 1 principle: r = .07

• 2 principles: r = .15

• 3 principles: r = .20
  → More RNR adherence = greater violence reduction.

What were Papalia et al.’s (2019) findings on treatment effectiveness?

• OR = .69 → 31% reduction in odds of violent reoffending.

• OR = .65 for general/non-violent recidivism (35% reduction).

• No significant effect for institutional offending.

Which program features were most effective in Papalia et al. (2019)?

• Effective: Anger control, emotion regulation, cognitive-behavioural skills, moral/values training, empathy, relapse prevention.

• Ineffective: Basic life skills programs.

• Enhancing factors: Role plays, homework, trained clinical staff.