persuasion exam 2

Language as the social construction of reality

Language shapes how people interpret and understand their world.

Denotative meaning

The literal, dictionary definition.

Connotative meaning

The emotional or cultural meaning behind a word.

Euphemisms

• Softer, more socially acceptable substitutes for harsh or direct language (e.g., “passed away” instead of “died”).

Symbol

A sign or representation that stands for something else.

Referential symbols

Have specific, clear, agreed-upon meanings.

Condensational symbols

• Carry emotional or ideological meaning; open to multiple interpretations.

God terms

Words with strong positive cultural value (e.g., truth, liberty).

Devil terms

Words with strong negative associations (e.g., terrorism, corruption).

Charismatic terms:

• Powerful but vague words that inspire (e.g., progress, change).

Aphorisms

Short, memorable sayings that express a truth or principle.

Metaphors

Comparisons used to frame understanding (e.g., “Time is money”).

Labeling

The words used to describe something can influence perception (e.g., “freedom fighter” vs. “rebel”).

Importance of Nonverbal Behavior

Nonverbal communication is often more influential than verbal messages, as it can reflect underlying attitudes and emotions.

Immediacy

Behaviors that create psychological closeness, such as eye contact, nodding, or leaning forward.

KINESICS Eye contact

Signals attention and credibility.

KINESICS Facial expressions

Convey emotions and attitudes.

KINESICS Mirroring/mimicking

Subtle copying of another’s gestures to build rapport

 KINESICS Emblems

Gestures with direct verbal meaning (e.g., waving).

KINESICS Illustrators

• Gestures that add emphasis to speech.

Adaptors

Unconscious physical movements (e.g., fidgeting, tapping) often associated with anxiety or discomfort.

Haptics (Touch)

Touch can express affection, control, power, or formality depending on the context.

Artifacts

Personal belongings, clothing, accessories, and physical surroundings that communicate identity or status.

Proxemics (Use of Space)

The physical distance maintained in interactions signals intimacy, authority, or discomfort.

Chronemics (Use of Time)

Time communicates value, respect, and importance. Scarcity (limited time or availability) increases persuasion by creating urgency.

Psychological Reactance

When individuals feel their freedom is being threatened, they may resist or respond oppositely.

Physical Appearance Halo effect:

Attractive individuals are often perceived as more credible or persuasive. Facial features, hair (length and color), and height influence first impressions.

Body types: Mesomorph (muscular):

Seen as strong and confident.

Ectomorph (thin):

Seen as quiet or introverted.

Endomorph (rounder):

Seen as friendly or sometimes lazy.

COMPLIANCE-GAINING

Compliance-gaining refers to strategies used to influence someone to change their behavior (not necessarily their attitude).

Compliance-Gaining Strategies

You must recognize and identify strategies (e.g., rewarding, threatening, using guilt, flattery, moral appeals), but not memorize lists.

Intimacy:

Closer relationships affect which strategies are acceptable.

Interpersonal context

Strategy choice depends on relationship type.

Long-term vs. short-term consequences

Influences how forceful or indirect someone may be.

Power types:

Reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, and referent power.

Politeness theory:

People seek to protect their own and others’ self-image.

Positive face:

Desire to be liked or approved of.

Negative face

Desire for autonomy and freedom from constraints.

Face-threatening acts:

Messages that damage someone’s self-esteem or social standing.

Non-negotiation:

Direct refusal.

Identity management:

Using self-concept to justify refusal.

Justifying

Giving a reason or excuse.

Negotiation

Suggesting an alternative.

Face-saving:

Refusing while maintaining dignity for both parties.

Intrinsic motivation:

• Driven by internal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation:

Driven by external rewards or consequences.

Central processing:

Deep, thoughtful evaluation (logic-based).

Peripheral processing:

Influenced by superficial cues (e.g., attractiveness, music).

Positive Emotional Appeals

• Often used in branding and shaping attitudes

Warmth appeals:

Aim to create feelings of comfort, happiness, and emotional connection. Perceived genuineness improves effectiveness.

Negative/Fear Appeals

• Can be effective if used properly.

Danger control:

• Focus is on resolving the threat; leads to positive change.

Fear control:

Focus is on emotional response; leads to denial or avoidance.

Illusion of invulnerability:

• Belief that “it won’t happen to me.”

Present vs. future self:

• People may feel less urgency when consequences seem distant.

Stereotypes of victims:

People believe only certain types are at risk.

Effective fear appeals must include both:

Threat information, Efficacy

Threat information:

• Susceptibility: Likelihood it could affect them.

• Severity: How serious the consequences are.

Efficacy

• Response efficacy: Belief that the recommended action works.

• Self-efficacy: Belief that they are capable of performing the action.

Message Framing

• Positive framing: Focuses on benefits of acting.

• Negative framing: Focuses on consequences of not acting.

Guilt Appeals

Work best when paired with:

• Empathy: Feeling concern for others.

• Efficacy: Belief they can do something to help.