Western Civ 2025 Exam

Heresy

belief condemned by the Church

Nicene Creed

Standard statement of Christian belief

Pagan

A follower of polytheistic religion

Canon Law

Law of the church

Vulgate

StandardLatin translation of the Bible

Manuscript

Handwritten documents or books

Codex

Modern day book format as opposed to the scroll

Monasticism

Religious living communally

Ascetism

A life of physical deprivation to obtain a greater degree of holiness and spiritual authority

Edict of Milan (STAR term)

The Edict of Milan was a law made by Constantine in A.D. 313. The law stated that Christianity was now legal in the Roman Empire and brought an end to the Great Persecution. The Edict of Milan is important because although Christianity was rapidly spreading already, the end to the Great Persecution allowed it to spread even more and become the most practiced religion of that time. This carries over to today where Christianity is one of the most popular religions.

The Council of Nicaea (STAR term)

The Council of Nicaea took place in A.D 325 in Nicaea, where 318 bishops attended. The Council was called on by Constantine, who wanted to have the bishops dispute the nature of Christ to better unify the Empire. They determined that Arianism was a heresy and created the Nicaean Creed. This is important because it started the discussion on the Trinity and created the Nicaean Creed, which is read out during masses today.

How did Diocletian try to restore order in the Roman Empire?

1) Established Authority (dominus)

2) Brought the army under control and reduced potential rivals

3) Devised ways to revive the economy- Required ta to be paid in produce rather than worthless coinage

4) Devised ways to unify the Empire- Imperial Cult, which lead to the Great Persecution

What was Diocletian's rationale for the persecution of Christians?

Diocletian believed that participation in the imperial cult could be used to unify the empire, but this brought him into conflict with Christianity which rejected participation. Diocletian saw this as a direct threat (weakened unity of the empire)

What was Diocletian's plan for governance of the empire called?

-Diocletian's plan for governance of the empire- Tetrarchy

-This system was also designed to solve the problem of imperial succession which had been the greatest cause of instability during the Principate

How did Constantine try to restore order in the Roman Empire?

1) Reversed Diocletian's policy toward senators

2) Decided that trustworthy hard currency was needed -- solidus

3) Edict of Milan, ended Christian persecution withing the empire

What was Constantine wrong about when deciding to unite the Empire under Christianity?

That Christians were unified in their belief

What was the Arian controversy?

Debate about the nature of God. Alexandrian Priest (Arius) taught that Christ the Son was subordinate to and of a different nature from God the Father, this teaching is known as Arianism.

Where was Arianism condemned?

Council of Nicaea

What Emperor died and split the Empire? How did it split?

Theodosius in 395, it was split between his two sons

When did barbarian invasions start?

Beginning of the 5th century

Who captured Rome in the beginning of the 5th century and when?

Alaric and the Visigoths captured and sacked Rome in 410

Who was the last Emperor in the west and who deposed him?

In 476 the boy emperor Romulus was deposed by the barbarian general Odovacar

Laity

Collective term to refer to those not professed

Ecclesiastical

Pertaining to the church

Kaaba

The most sacred temple of Islam, located at Mecca

Caliph

Spiritual and political leader of the Muslim community

Caliphate

Muslim State

Icon

Representation of sacred figures on wood, panels, mosaics, or wall painting

Iconoclasm

A belief that the practice of worshiping and honoring objects such as icons was sinful.

Quran (STAR term)

In 610, Muhammad, who was from the Quraysh tribe, ventured to a dessert in Mecca. Once he was there, he saw what he believed to be as the Angel Gabriel, who told him to recite three times. Muhammad opened his mouth and said what he thought to be the words of God. These words were written down in what is known as the Quran, and is treated as a sacred scripture in the Muslim faith. This is important because it is the focal point of the Muslim religion which is now today one of the most practiced religions.

Muhammad

Muslims call the Last Prophet

What happened in 622 (Muhammad)

Muhammad left Mecca to go to Medina, this date marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar, and his journey is called the Hejira

What did Muhammad do for Medina and how did he do it?

He brought political and religious unity, primarily by forcing out the Jews who refused to convert to his new religion

Which way did Muslim people start facing to pray and why?

They started off by facing the direction of Jerusalem because they revered the holy city, but then substituted it for Mecca because they had moved to Medina

Five pillars of Islam (what makes a worthy life in the Muslim faith)

1) Admission that there is no god but God, and Muhammad was His prophet

2) Pray five times per day- expressing devotion to God, facing the direction of Mecca

3) Fasting (strict during the holy month of Ramadan)

4) Charity

5) Pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj) at least one time. This was expected not mandatory (Muhammad considered the limited means of the poor and sick)

What was the purpose of the Five Pillars of Islam?

To provide unity of purpose and actions among all Muslims

Who were considered People of the Book according to the Quran?

Muslims, Jews, and Christians are all people of the book (the Hebrew Bible)

What was the underlying cause of the split between the Sunnis and the Shi'ites

Muhammad died in 632 before clearly indicating who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community

Who did the Muslim leaders chose to be the first caliph after Muhammad's death?

Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's fathers-in-law and a highly respected member of the Quraysh tribe.

What caused the Schism? (Muslim Schism)

After internal dissent led to the murder of the third caliph in 655, tension among the Muslim leaders intensified over who stood net in line to be elected caliph

Who supported who in the Schism? (Muslim Schism)

Some claimed that Ali (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law) was the rightful leader because he belonged to Muhammad's family. Shi'ites supported Ali.

Others wished to reserve the office for senior members of the Quraysh tribe. Sunni supported the Quraysh sect.

Bishop

Spiritual head of a diocese Has authority over local churches and parish priests

Tithe

Tax of one-tenth of property levied by the medieval churches on all Christians to help sustain its activities

Secular

Pertaining to the worldly as opposed to the spiritual or ecclesiastical- relating to the state as opposed to the church

Dogma

Official teachings of the church

Vassal

A holder of land on conditions of allegiance/loyalty

Oath of Fealty

Formal pledge of fidelity made by a vassal in exchange for military service and counsel

Feudal Armies

A force comprising all who owed military service to the king or lord

Manor

Collection of peasant dwellings and a lord's residence surrounded by agricultural land

Serfs

Peasants whose residence on a plot of land was compulsory and hereditary (tied to the land)

How was kingship in the Middle Ages and what did it encourage?

A king was only as powerful as he was wealthy and forceful, so he was always at war- always on the move in search of gain. This kind of kingship and rule encouraged instability and continual warfare

What sources of income strengthened a bishop's authority?

Bishops allied themselves to the ruling of noble families of western Europe, they received gifts of land from the wealthy. They also relied on tithes.

What was the significant conflict between bishops and secular authorities?

The right of kings to make ecclesiastic appointments (to name a bishop)

Simony

Purchase of an ecclesiastical office

Cathars (Albigensian)

Medieval dualist Christian sect that flourished in Southern France during the 12th and 13th centuries. They believed that physical matter was bad.

Scholasticism

A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century.

Magna Carta

A document confining the English king to his traditional rights and obligations- signed by King John in 1215

Concordat of Worms (STAR term)

In 1122, Henry V and the Pope Calixtus II had agreements on royalty's place in some ecclesiastical affairs. the terms stated that only the pope could appoint clergy, which resolved the argument of both parties' predecessors. This agreement also stated that while the king could grant secular authority to a bishop, he could not grant any spiritual power. This defined the earthly and spiritual authority of a bishop for later generations

The Magna Carta (STAR term)

King John I had been raising taxes to pay for wars he never won. This harsh financial abuse of his subjects and the English barons, who helped him govern his kingdom. Finally, the forced him to sign the Magna Carta, saying he could not keep taxing them unfairly. The Magna Carta was the first document to state that royalty was not above the law in 1215 in England. This document would later be used for those fighting against tyrannical governments.

Why did the church need reform?

1) Rich monasteries, who derived large incomes from land they had received from noble and royal patrons, acquired reputations for opulence rather than for austerity, and had abbots who resembled noblemen

2) Ecclesiastical offices for sale

3) Married priests

4) Secular rulers appointing bishops

How did the Church reform in the 11th century?

1) Stricter adherence to celibacy

2) Minimal level of literacy

3) Ban of the purchase of ecclesiastical office

What were the Crusades the first instance of?

First instance of the church using armies to invoke war and conquest

March 1095

Urban II received a letter that allowed him to give nobility a new focus to their hostilities. The Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus asked for aid against the Turks who had seized land in Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine from both Byzantine and Muslim rulers

Council of Clermont

November 1095

- Pope Urban II preached a sermon to a large crowd in Clermont (central France) where he declared enemies of the faith were intent on conquering the Holy Land

- He promised remission of sins for any of those who went to fight non-Christians, making war an act of penance.

- The church tried to keep enthusiasm in check to ensure the success of the crusade and to guarantee its sacred character by issuing a special blessing and by keeping a strict control over volunteers. Those wishing to enroll had to be approved by their parish priest and a crusading vow had to be taken, desertion meant excommunication

People's Crusade

April 1096

-Led by Peter the Hermit

-Undisciplined and untrained for war- knew nothing about supply and strategy

-Slaughtered or enslaved by the Turks

First Crusade

July 1099

- Made up of knights led by noblemen experience in warfare

- After a month long siege, the Crusaders captured the city

- This would prove to be the only successful crusade

Second Crusade

1187

- Once the threat of Turkish and Egyptians resistance was eliminated, the Christian armies began to wither away. This had the effect of weaking the Christian strongholds

-Saladin (Muslim leader) captures Jerusalem

Third Crusade

1189

- To recapture Jerusalem, Richard I king of England and Philip II Augustus of France led the Third Crusade, but they succeeded in seizing only the port of Acre. Jerusalem remained out of reach for the crusading armies

Fourth Crusade

1202

- Pope Innocent III called for a Fourth Crusade to the Holy land, but instead of fulfilling the mission defined by the pope, the crusading army seized Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire

Albigensian Crusade

July 1909

- Pope Innocent III also called for a war against the Cathar heretics - thus using crusading as a tool to impose religious uniformity in western Europe

Reconquista

mid 1000s

- Re-conquest of Spain began. Long drawn out war, lasting more than four centuries- but would ultimately succeed

- in 1492, 800 years of Muslim rule in Spain were at an end

What was the impact of the crusades

1) Tremendous loss of life on all sides

2) Reform of the church had come to mean uniformity of belief and practice

3) Merchants of western Europe benefited from contact with the markets in Palestine and Syria

4) The distance from Italy and the Levant gave rise to banking techniques for the long-distance transfer of credit instead of coin- always vulnerable to theft and piracy

5) Crusades accelerated the pace of economic change

Summary of the Crusades

- Militarily, the Crusades accomplished very little. Jerusalem was still in the hands of the Muslims, as was Asia Minor and North Africa. Eastern and western Christianity were still divided

- The fact that the countries of Europe could come together to fight was a sign that Europe had finally come together. It also highlighted the pope's ability as an international leader

Military Orders

12th century

- Professional soldiers came to be garrisoned. Soldiers were not just knights, but they belonged to religious orders of laymen who had taken vows similar to those taken by monks

- Original purpose was to take care of sick pilgrims and had vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience

Knights Hospitaller

Monastic order of knights formed to defend Christian possessions in Syria and Palestine

Order of the Templars (Knights Templar)

1120s

- Provided relief to the poor and military defense

- They guarded money moving between western Europe and Palestine

- They gained immense wealth from moneylending. As creditors of kings, they had not only wealth, but political influence

Little Ice Age

Period of cooler weather in Europe beginning around the start of the fourteenth century

Black Death

Epidemic of bubonic plague that killed one-third to one-half of the people of Europe between 1347 and 1351

Flagellants

Groups who ritually whipped themselves in public to atone for the sins of humanity during the plague

Scapegoats

Any group that innocently bears the blame of others

Dauphin

Title of the eldest son of the king of France, usually the heir to the throne

Conscription

Military draft; involuntary recruitment of soldiers from among the people

Chivalry

Code of military and courtly conduct among the nobility that valued mercy in battle, Christian duty, and defense of women

Chevauchees

Mounted warriors whose purpose was to destroy crops and terrorize the people of the countryside

Abdicate

To resign from an office, usually one with a life term

Benefice

Right to the income from a church office

Avignon papacy

From 1309 to 1377, the period of the papacy's residence in the city of Avignon in what is today southern France

Indulgence

Cancellation of any punishment still due to sin after the sacrament of penance

Purgatory

Place in which the souls of the dead spend time to atone for sins still remaining at the time of their death

Great Schism

Split within the western church at the end of the Avignon papacy over three rivals to the office of the pope

Mysticism

Belief that God can be experienced directly through contemplation and prayer

Blood Libel

Accusations that Jews sacrificed Christian children to use their blood in rituals for Passover, the commemoration of the ancient Hebrews' deliverance from slavery in Egypt

What factors caused widespread death throughout Europe

- Famine

- Black plague (Began in Central Asia and spread from fleas on rats)

How did people react to the arrival of the plague in western Europe?

- Spiritual comfort

- Abandoned by God

- Collective Guilt

- Scapegoats

What opportunities emerged because of the devastating loss of life from the plague?

- Rents

- Labor

- Wages