Cognition Part 1 Vocab

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Prospective memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier; fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned; multiple-choice test

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

George A. Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Ebbinghaus curve

the curve that shows how we forget 50% of what we learn within one hour of learning it if it is not put into practice

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

the smallest unit that carries meaning

Grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others