ap psych notes 2/7/25

Classical Conditioning/Contiguity Model

Learning occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired, creating an association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned response.

NS (Neutral Stimulus)

A stimulus that initially elicits no response.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

An automatic, natural reaction to the UCS.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a response.

CR (Conditioned Response)

The learned response to the CS.

Acquisition

The initial stage where the NS becomes the CS by pairing with the UCS.

Stimulus Contiguity

The close timing between the NS and UCS needed for conditioning.

Extinction

Weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a weakened CR after extinction.

Stimulus Generalization

A CR is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS.

Case of Little Albert

Watson conditioned a fear response in a child by pairing a loud noise with a white rat.

Stimulus Discrimination

Differentiating between the CS and similar stimuli.

CS-UCS Timing (5 Types)

Delay, trace, simultaneous, backward, temporal—timing affects learning strength.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A CS is paired with a new NS to create a second CS without the UCS.

Instrumental Learning

Thorndike's idea that behaviors with favorable outcomes are repeated.

Law of Effect

Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur.

Reinforcement

Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

Problems with Punishment

Can cause fear, avoidance, and aggression without teaching correct behavior.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning with dogs.

John B. Watson

Applied classical conditioning to humans (Little Albert).

Edward Thorndike

Created the Law of Effect.

B.F. Skinner

Studied operant conditioning and reinforcement schedules.

Robert Rescorla

Emphasized the role of cognition in classical conditioning.

Albert Bandura

Pioneered observational learning (Bobo Doll Experiment).

Edward Tolman

Demonstrated latent learning in rats.

Wolfgang Köhler

Studied insight learning in chimpanzees.

How Do We Learn?

Through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on consequences.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

Extinction (OC)

Decline of a behavior when reinforcement stops.

Resistance to Extinction

Continued behavior despite lack of reinforcement.

Discriminative Stimuli

Signals that reinforcement is available.

Stimulus Generalization (OC)

Behavior extends to similar stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination (OC)

Behavior occurs only in the presence of specific stimuli.

Delayed Reinforcement

Reinforcement given after a time delay, reducing its effectiveness.

Primary Reinforcers

Satisfy basic needs (e.g., food, water).

Secondary Reinforcers

Learned reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforce every time behavior occurs; quick learning, quick extinction.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforce only some responses; more resistant to extinction.

FR (Fixed Ratio)

Reinforce after a set number of responses.

VR (Variable Ratio)

Reinforce after a random number of responses.

FI (Fixed Interval)

Reinforce after a set time period.

VI (Variable Interval)

Reinforce after varying time intervals.

Learned Helplessness

Giving up when unable to avoid repeated negative events.

Instinctive Drift

Tendency to revert to innate behaviors.

Biological Predispositions

Certain associations are learned more easily due to biology.

Taste Aversion

Strong aversion after a single bad experience with food.

Vicarious Learning

Learning by observing consequences for others.

Modeling

Imitating behavior seen in others.

4 Key Processes

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation (Bandura).

Bobo Doll Experiment

Showed that children imitate aggressive behavior.

Latent Learning

Learning that remains hidden until needed.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a solution without trial and error.