Key Concepts in Comparative Politics: States, Identity, and Governance

Political saliency

The degree to which something is politically important

Primordialism

A theory that sees identity groups as being natural and having existed since time immemorial, defined by kinship, language, culture or phenotype

Constructivism

A theory of identity group formation that argues that identities are created through a complex process usually referred to as social construction

Social construction

Constructivists argue that this creates identities as societies define identities of us and those around us

Autonomy

The ability and right of a group to partially govern itself within a larger state

Assimilation

A belief that immigrants or other members of minority cultural communities ought to adopt the culture of the majority population

Multicultural integration

Accepts that ethnocultural identities matter to citizens will endure over time and must be recognized and accommodated within political institutions

Consociationalism

A democratic system designed to ease ethnic tensions via recognizing the existence of specific groups and granting some share of power in the central government to each usually codified in specific legal or constitutional guarantees to each group

Centripedial approach

A means used by democracies to resolve ethnic conflict by giving political leaders and parties incentives to moderate their demands

Nationalism

The desire to control a nation and thus to control a national state

Cultural nationalism

National unity based on a common cultural characteristic wherein only those people who share characteristics can be included in the nation

Jus sanguinis

Citizenship based on blood ties

Civic nationalism

A sense of national unity and purpose based on a set of commonly held political beliefs

Jus soli

Citizenship dependent on soil or residence within the national territory

Ethnic group

A group of people who see themselves as united by one or more cultural attributes or a sense of common history but do not see themselves as a nation seeking its own state

Social class

A group of people who share or perceive themselves to share a social status based on common level of wealth, income, type of work, or education

Laicite

A model of secularism advocating that religion should play no part in the public realm

Positive accommodation

A model of secularism wherein the state is neutral among but willing to support religions that it recognizes as important elements in civil society

Neutral state model

The state should be neutral about but not opposed to religion

Liberationist

Member of the LGBTQ movement who seeks to transform sexual and gender norms so that all may gain social acceptance and respect regardless of their conformity to preexisting norms or institutions

Political accountability

The ability of the citizen directly or indirectly to control political leaders and institutions

Vertical accountability

The ability of individuals and groups in a society to hold state institutions accountable

Horizontal accountability

The ability of state institutions

Executive

The chief political power and branch of government

Legislature

Branch of government that makes the law in a democracy

Judiciary

Branch of government that interprets the law and applies it to individual cases

Majoritarian democracy

A type of democracy system that concentrates power more tightly in a single-party executive dominance over the legislature, a single legislative branch and constitution that can be easily amended

Consensus democracy

A democratic system in multiparty executive in coalition government executive-legislative balance bicameral legislature and rigid constitution that are not easily amended

Coalition government

Government in a parliamentary system in which at least two parties negotiate an agreement to rule together

Veto player

An individual or collective actor whose agreement is essential for any policy change

Head of state

The official symbolic representative of a country authorized to speak on its behalf and represent it particularly in world affairs usually a president or monarch

Head of government

The key executive power in a state usually a president or prime minister

Parliamentarism

A term denoting a parliamentary system of democracy in which the executive and legislative branches are fused via parliament's election of the chief executive

Prime minister

The head of government in parliamentary and semipresidential systems

Member of parliament

An elected member of the legislature in a parliamentary system

Vote of no confidence

In parliamentary systems a vote by parliament to remove a government from power

Presidentialism

A term denoting a presidential system of democracy in which the executive and legislature are elected independently and have separate and independent powers

Separation of powers

Constitutionally explicit division of power among the major branches of government

Coalition presidentialism

A presidential system with many parties in the legislature requiring the president to form an informal coalition of parties to pass legislation

Semipresidentialism

A term denoting a semipresidential system of democracy in which executive power is divided between a directly elected president and a prime minister elected by a parliament

Cohabitation

Sharing of power between a president and prime minister from different parties in a semipresidential system

Judicial review

The authority of judiciary to decide whether a specific law contradicts a country's constitution

Institutionalization

The degree to which government processes and procedures are established, predictable, and routinized

Common law

Legal system originating in Britain in which judges base decisions not only on their understanding of the written law but also on past court cases in contrast to code law

Code law

Legal systems originating in ancient Roman law and modified by Napoleon Bonaparte in France in which judges may only follow the law as written and must ignore past decisions

Judicial independence

The belief and ability of judges to decide cases as they think appropriate regardless of what other people and especially politically powerful officials or institutions desire

Principal-agent problem

A problem in which a principal hires an agent to perform a task but the agent's self-interest does not necessarily align with the principal so the agent may not carry out the task as assigned

Political appointees

Officials who serve at the pleasure of the president or prime minister and are assigned the task of overseeing their respective segments of the bureaucracy

Legislative oversight

Occurs when members of the legislature usually in committee oversee the bureaucracy

New Public Management

Theory of reform of bureaucracies that argues for the privatizing of many government services creating competition among agencies to stimulate a market focusing on customer satisfaction and flattening administrative hierarchies

Rent seeking

Gaining an advantage in a market without engaging in equally productive activity usually involved using government regulations for one's own benefit

Unitary systems

Political systems in which the central government has sole constitutional sovereignty and power in contrast to a federal system

Federal systems

Political systems in which a state's power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of government in contrast to a unitary government

Federalism

Relative power and autonomy of national and subnational governments

Asymmetrical states

Federal systems in ethnically divided societies are asymmetrical, some states or provinces have special rights or powers others do not

Symmetrical federal system

A federal system in which all subnational governments have distinct relationships with and rights in relation to the national government

Devolution

Partial decentralization of power from central government to subunits such as states or provinces with subunits of power being dependent on central government and reversible

Politics

Process by which human communities make collective decisions

Comparative Politics

Systematic study of politics, specifically power structures and comparison between regions

Political Science

Systematic study of politics

First Dimension of Power

Ability of one group or person to get another group or person to do something it otherwise would not do; influence on active decisions

Second Dimension of Power

Power to not only make people do something but make them NOT do something (keep certain groups out of political area and control agenda)

Third Dimension of Power

Ability to shape or determine individual or group political demands by causing people to think about political issues in ways contrary to their own interests

Comparativists

Interested in understanding political events and developments in various countries

Systematic Comparison

Comparison of different systems and events that can generate important lessons that can apply anywhere

Theory

Abstract argument that provides systematic explanation of some phenomenon

Empirical Theories

Explain what actually occurs, describing a pattern and attempts to explain what causes it

Normative Theories

Explains what OUGHT to occur rather than what actually does occur

Research Methods

Systematic processes to ensure that study of some phenomena is as objective and unbiased as possible

Single-Case Study

Examines a political phenomenon in one particular country or community

Quantitative Statistical Techniques

Evidence that is reduced to sets of numbers, compares huge number of cases

Special Interest

Agreeing with a cause is benevolent; those we agree with are this

Comparative Method

Examines same phenomenon in several cases and tries to mimic lab conditions by selective cases carefully

Rational Choice Theory

Assumes that individuals are rational and they bring a set of self-defined preferences into the political area

Psychological Theories

Explain political behavior on the basis of individuals' psychological experiences

Political Culture

Set of widely held attitude beliefs and symbols about politics; provides people with explanations for their political institutions

Political Socialization

The way young people in a society are taught politics and their societies common political values

Modernists

Believe that clear attitudes, values, and beliefs can be identified within a particular culture and it explains much about politics in a place

Civil Culture

A political culture where the citizenry holds democratic views including active participation in politics

Subculture

Distinct political cultures of particular groups (race, gender, political ideology)

Postmaterialist

Most citizens in wealthy nations by the 1970s were less concerned about economic issues and more about quality of life issues

Postmodernist

An approach that sees culture not as sets of fixed and clearly defined values but rather as sets of symbols subject to interpretation

Political Ideology

Systematic set of beliefs about how a political system ought to be structured

Structuralism

Political behavior is at least influenced by broader structures in society such as class division or enduring institutions

Marxism

Structuralist argument that says that economic structures determine political behavior; philosophical underpinning of communism

Bourgeoisie

Owns and controls capital

Proletariat

Owns no capital and must sell its labor to survive

Institutionalism

An approach to explaining politics that argues that political institutions are crucial to understanding political behavior

Political Institutions

Set of rules and norms that is considered the standard operating procedure (can also be informal)

Rational Choice Institutionalists

Follow assumptions of rational choice theory; institutions are the products of the interaction and bargaining of rational actors

Criticism of Historical Institutionalists

Institutions are rarely an explanation for political behavior

Historical Institutionalists

Believe that institutions limit self-interested political behavior and also who can be involved in politics and shape individual political behavior

Pluralist Theories

Contend that society is broken up into various political groups and that power is dispersed among them so that no group has complete power

Elite Theories

Argue that all societies are run by one or more group of elites that have control over virtually all power

C. Wright Mills in The Power Elite

United States is ruled by a set of interlocking elites sitting at the top of economic, political, and military hierarchies

Jeffery Winters

Material power in the form of extreme wealth is the basis for the power of a particularly powerful elite oligarchs who use the power to protect their own wealth

States Characteristics

States share 4 characteristics used to identify modern states: a claim over territory, external and internal sovereignty, a claim to legitimacy, and bureaucracy

External Sovereignty

Sovereignty relative to outside powers that is legally recognized in international law

Internal Sovereignty

Sole authority within a territory that is capable of making and enforcing laws

Legitimacy

Recognized right to rule, enhances state sovereignty