ABPSYCH PHASE 3, PHASE 5

John Haslam

• Definition: Superintendent of a British hospital who outlined a description of schizophrenia symptoms in his book Observations on Madness and Melancholy.

• Context:

  • One of the earliest recorded descriptions of schizophrenia symptoms.

  • His work contributed to the historical understanding of psychiatric disorders.

Philippe Pinel

• Definition: French physician who described cases of schizophrenia.

• Context:

  • Advocated for humane treatment of mental illness.

  • Recognized schizophrenia as a distinct psychiatric condition.

Benedict Morel

• Definition: Introduced the term démence précoce (early or premature loss of mind) to describe schizophrenia.

• Context:

  • Suggested schizophrenia was an early-onset disorder.

  • His terminology influenced later classifications of mental illnesses.

Emil Kraepelin

• Definition: Unified distinct schizophrenia categories under Dementia Praecox, combining various symptoms.

• Context:

  • Identified core symptom patterns: catatonia, hebephrenia, and paranoia.

  • Distinguished dementia praecox from other psychiatric disorders.

Eugen Bleuler

• Definition: Introduced the term schizophrenia ("splitting of mind").

• Context:

  • Proposed the concept of associative splitting in thought processes.

  • Emphasized cognitive and emotional disruptions in schizophrenia.

• Example: The term schizophrenia replaced Kraepelin’s dementia praecox in psychiatric literature.

Positive Symptoms

• Definition: Symptoms that involve an excess or distortion of normal functions.

• Context:

  • Include delusions and hallucinations.

  • Often associated with abnormal dopamine activity.

• Example: A patient believing they are being controlled by external forces exhibits a delusion of control.

Delusions

• Definition: Fixed false beliefs that persist despite contrary evidence.

• Context:

  • Can be categorized into persecutory, referential, grandiose, erotomanic, nihilistic, somatic, and others.

  • Different theories explain delusions, such as the motivational and deficit views.

• Example: Someone with Capgras Syndrome may believe their loved one has been replaced by an impostor.

Hallucinations

• Definition: Sensory experiences without external stimuli.

• Context:

  • Auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia.

  • The Broca’s area (speech production) is often active during hallucinations.

• Example: A person hearing voices commanding them to perform actions is experiencing auditory ____.

Negative Symptoms

• Definition: Symptoms involving a lack of normal function.

• Context:

  • Include avolition, anhedonia, asociality, and affective flattening.

  • Often indicate a more severe course of the disorder.

• Example: A person with flat affect may show little emotion even when discussing a deeply personal topic.

Disorganized Symptoms

• Definition: Symptoms affecting thought organization, speech, and behavior.

• Context:

  • Can include word salad, clang associations, and inappropriate affect.

  • Disorganized speech often manifests as tangential or nonsensical responses.

• Example: A patient saying, “The sun is blue because the radio sings” exhibits disorganized speech.

Prodromal Stage

• Definition: A 1–2 year period before severe schizophrenia symptoms appear, characterized by subtle changes.

• Context:

  • Includes unusual behaviors, social withdrawal, and cognitive disturbances.

  • Early detection can improve treatment outcomes.

• Example: A teenager withdrawing from friends and showing mild paranoia might be in the ___ stage.

Schizophrenogenic Mother

• Definition: A now-debunked theory suggesting cold, dominant mothers cause schizophrenia.

• Context:

  • Previously used to explain schizophrenia development.

  • Rejected due to lack of empirical support.

• Example: Modern research shows schizophrenia has biological and environmental influences, not just parental behavior.

Double Bind Communication

• Definition: A communication style that sends conflicting messages, once believed to contribute to schizophrenia.

• Context:

  • Created confusion in individuals, making it difficult to interpret reality.

  • No longer a widely accepted explanation for schizophrenia.

• Example: A parent saying, “Be independent,” but punishing their child for making decisions alone illustrates double bind communication.

Delusional Disorder

Definition:
A mental disorder characterized by the presence of one or more delusions lasting at least one month without meeting the full criteria for schizophrenia.

Context:

• Unlike schizophrenia, delusional disorder lacks prominent hallucinations, disorganized thinking, or negative symptoms.

• Individuals with this disorder often maintain relatively normal functioning aside from their delusional beliefs.

Example:
A person firmly believes that they are secretly married to a famous celebrity despite having never met them (erotomanic delusion).

Brief Psychotic Disorder

Definition:
A sudden onset of psychotic symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, or grossly disorganized behavior, lasting at least one day but less than one month, with full recovery.

Context:

• Often triggered by severe stress or trauma, such as the sudden loss of a loved one.

• More common in younger individuals and may be associated with personality disorders.

Example:
After experiencing a traumatic accident, a person starts hearing voices and believing that they are being watched, but these symptoms disappear within two weeks.

Schizophreniform Disorder

Definition:
A disorder with symptoms identical to schizophrenia, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and negative symptoms, but lasting more than one month and less than six months.

Context:

• Considered an intermediate diagnosis between brief psychotic disorder and schizophrenia.

• Some individuals eventually develop schizophrenia, while others recover fully.

Example:
A college student starts experiencing paranoid delusions and disorganized speech for four months but then fully recovers without long-term impairment.

Schizophrenia

Definition: A chronic and severe mental disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior, often including hallucinations, delusions, and cognitive impairments.

• Context:

  • Symptoms typically emerge between the late teens and mid-30s, with an onset before adolescence being rare. The course can be abrupt or gradual.

  • Schizophrenia is marked by cognitive impairment and negative symptoms (e.g., avolition, anhedonia), which contribute significantly to functional difficulties. Prognosis varies based on illness duration, severity, and gender, with late-onset cases more common in women.

• Example: A college student starts believing they are under government surveillance, experiences auditory hallucinations, withdraws from social interactions, and shows disorganized speech patterns.

Schizoaffective Disorder

Definition: A mental disorder involving a combination of schizophrenia symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and significant mood disturbances, classified as either Bipolar Type (with manic episodes) or Depressive Type (with major depressive episodes).

• Context:

  • Onset typically occurs in early adulthood, and over time, some individuals may be reclassified as having either schizophrenia or a mood disorder, depending on symptom patterns.

  • The disorder is distinct from schizophrenia because mood episodes are present for a significant portion of the illness, while in schizophrenia, mood disturbances are less prominent.

• Example: A person experiences episodes of paranoia and auditory hallucinations alongside severe depressive episodes, making it difficult to distinguish between schizophrenia and a mood disorder.

Catatonia

Definition: A neuropsychiatric condition characterized by disturbances in motor behavior, ranging from complete immobility (catalepsy) to excessive, purposeless movement and agitation.

• Context:

  • can occur in schizophrenia, mood disorders, and other medical conditions, with symptoms such as mutism, stupor, waxy flexibility, posturing, and echolalia.

  • It can be life-threatening if untreated and requires medical intervention, often including benzodiazepines or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

• Example: A patient remains in a fixed, statue-like posture for hours without responding to external stimuli, showing waxy flexibility when their arm is moved by a doctor.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Definition: A group of disorders that emerge during childhood, affecting cognitive, social, and motor development, including conditions like intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

• Context:

  • often result from genetic, environmental, or prenatal factors, such as exposure to toxins, infections, or complications during birth.

  • They typically persist throughout life, with symptoms ranging from mild to severe, impacting daily functioning and requiring support through therapy, education, and medical interventions.

• Example: A child diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder exhibits difficulty in social interactions, has repetitive behaviors, and struggles with changes in routine.

Intellectual Developmental Disorder (IDD) / Global Developmental Delay

Definition: A condition characterized by significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive functioning, evident during the developmental period, leading to difficulties in daily activities, reasoning, problem-solving, and social skills.

• Context:

  • Causes include genetic conditions (e.g., Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome), prenatal exposure to drugs or infections, birth complications, and environmental factors such as severe neglect or malnutrition.

  • IDD is typically lifelong, though severity can vary over time; some individuals may also develop co-occurring neurocognitive disorders later in life.

• Example: A 10-year-old child with IDD has difficulty learning basic math, following social cues, and performing self-care tasks independently, requiring special education and support.

Language Disorder

Definition: A communication disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in acquiring and using language across various modalities, including spoken, written, and sign language.

• Context:

  • Diagnosis must account for regional, social, and cultural variations in language use.

  • Children with language disorder may struggle with vocabulary, sentence structure, and discourse, impacting academic and social development.

• Example: A 5-year-old child has trouble forming complete sentences and often uses incorrect grammar despite understanding what they want to say.

Speech Sound Disorder

Definition: A disorder involving difficulty in producing speech sounds correctly, leading to reduced intelligibility and communication difficulties.

• Context:

  • By age 3, most children should have intelligible speech, but those with speech sound disorder continue using immature phonological processes beyond the typical age.

  • Speech therapy is often effective, but co-occurring language disorders can result in a poorer prognosis.

• Example: A 6-year-old still says "wabbit" instead of "rabbit" and "fink" instead of "think," making it hard for others to understand them.

Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering)

Definition: A speech disorder characterized by disruptions in the normal fluency and time patterning of speech, such as repetitions, prolongations, or blocks.

• Context:

  • Usually emerges between ages 2 to 7, with most cases developing by age 6.

  • While some children outgrow stuttering, others require speech therapy, and excessive speech dysfluencies may warrant a clinical diagnosis.

• Example: A child struggling to say, "Can I have a cookie?" instead says, "C-c-can I have a c-c-cookie?" and appears frustrated while speaking.

Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder (SCD)

Definition: A disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in social communication, including understanding and using verbal and nonverbal communication in social contexts.

• Context:

  • Unlike Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), SCD does not involve restricted and repetitive behaviors or unusual interests.

  • Diagnosis is made when social communication deficits exceed what can be explained by intellectual disabilities or general developmental delays.

• Example: A child struggles to understand sarcasm, take turns in conversation, or adjust their speech based on social context, leading to difficulties in making friends.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Definition: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning or development.

Context:

• Most often identified during elementary school years when inattention becomes more prominent and impairing.

• ADHD symptoms in preschool children primarily manifest as hyperactivity.

Example: A 7-year-old struggles to focus on schoolwork, frequently fidgets, and has difficulty following multi-step instructions.

Specific Learning Disorder (SLD)

Definition: A condition where a person's academic performance is significantly below what would be expected based on age, IQ, and educational opportunities.

Context:

• Genetic factors may contribute to learning difficulties across different academic domains.

• Treatment often involves educational interventions tailored to individual needs.

Example: A child with dyslexia has difficulty reading fluently despite average intelligence and adequate instruction.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

Definition: A neurodevelopmental disorder affecting motor skills, making it difficult for individuals to perform coordinated movements necessary for daily tasks.

Context:

• Typically diagnosed in early childhood, with symptoms persisting over time.

• If criteria for both ADHD and DCD are met, both diagnoses can be given.

Example: A child struggles with handwriting, tying shoelaces, and catching a ball compared to peers of the same age.

Stereotypic Movement Disorder

Definition: A disorder characterized by repetitive, seemingly purposeless motor behaviors that interfere with daily activities or cause self-injury.

Context:

• Onset usually occurs in the first three years of life.

• Behaviors may be self-soothing or pleasurable and can stop with distraction.

Example: A child repeatedly flaps their hands when excited or anxious but does not engage in other behaviors associated with autism spectrum disorder.

Tic Disorders

Definition: A group of disorders characterized by sudden, rapid, recurrent, non-rhythmic motor movements or vocalizations.

Context:

• Tourette’s Disorder involves multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic persisting for over a year.

• Persistent Tic Disorder involves either motor or vocal tics (not both) lasting more than a year.

Example: A child frequently clears their throat involuntarily or blinks excessively without a medical cause.

Delirium

Definition: A neurocognitive disorder characterized by a sudden disturbance in attention, awareness, and cognition that develops over hours or days.

Context:

• Common among older adults and can be caused by improper medication use.

• May also occur in children with high fevers or due to certain medications.

Example: An elderly patient becomes confused and disoriented after being given a new medication in the hospital.

Alzheimer's Disease

Definition: A progressive neurocognitive disorder marked by memory impairment, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes, often occurring after age 65.

Context:

• Characterized by excessive senile plaques (beta-amyloid protein deposits) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted protein fibers) in the brain.

• No known cure, but some treatments help manage symptoms.

Example: A grandmother repeatedly asks the same questions, gets lost in familiar places, and struggles to recall recent conversations.

Vascular Injury

Definition: Cognitive decline caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, often following strokes or other vascular conditions.

Context:

• Symptoms include difficulty with problem-solving, slowed thinking, and impaired organization.

• The severity depends on the extent and location of brain damage.

Example: A man experiences memory issues and confusion following multiple small strokes.

Pick’s Disease

Definition: A rare disorder affecting the frontal and temporal lobes, leading to personality changes, speech difficulties, and cognitive decline.

Context:

• More likely to cause changes in behavior and language rather than memory loss in early stages.

• Progresses faster than Alzheimer’s disease in many cases.

Example: A middle-aged woman starts behaving inappropriately in social situations and develops trouble forming sentences.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Definition: Cognitive impairment resulting from brain trauma, such as a severe blow to the head.

Context:

• Symptoms may include memory loss, difficulty concentrating, and emotional instability.

• Can be caused by accidents, falls, or sports injuries.

Example: A former football player develops persistent forgetfulness and mood swings after repeated concussions.

Lewy Body Disease

Definition: A disorder caused by the buildup of Lewy bodies (protein deposits) in the brain, leading to movement difficulties, hallucinations, and cognitive decline.

Context:

• Second most common neurocognitive disorder after Alzheimer’s.

• Symptoms include visual hallucinations, sleep disturbances, and tremors.

Example: A patient reports seeing people who aren’t there and experiences severe movement difficulties.

Parkinson’s Disease

Definition: A progressive neurological disorder characterized by:

tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement,

sometimes leading to cognitive impairment.

Context:

• Caused by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.

• Cognitive decline may develop in later stages of the disease.

Example: A man with _____ struggles with memory and decision-making in addition to his motor symptoms.

HIV Infection

Definition: Cognitive impairment resulting from HIV-related damage to the brain.

Context:

• Can cause difficulties with attention, memory, and problem-solving.

• Some cases improve with antiretroviral therapy.

Example: A person with untreated HIV experiences confusion and difficulty remembering recent events.

Huntington’s Disease

Definition: A genetic disorder causing progressive cognitive decline, personality changes, and movement difficulties.

Context:

• Inherited condition with symptoms worsening over time.

• Also involves involuntary twitching and spasms.

Example: A man in his 40s develops memory problems, mood swings, and jerky movements.

Prion Disease (Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease)

Definition: A rare and fatal disorder caused by misfolded proteins (prions), leading to rapid neurodegeneration.

Context:

• Symptoms include memory loss, muscle stiffness, and uncontrollable body spasms.

• Caused by a slow-acting virus that may remain dormant for years.

Example: A patient develops sudden memory loss and involuntary muscle jerks, rapidly worsening over months.

Dementia

Definition: A general term for conditions causing significant cognitive decline severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Context:

• Common types include Alzheimer’s, vascular dementia, and Lewy body dementia.

• Symptoms vary but often involve memory loss, difficulty communicating, and personality changes.

Example: An elderly woman forgets how to use household appliances and becomes disoriented even in familiar places.

Deletion, Duplication, Addition

– Chromosomal alterations where a section is removed, repeated, or inserted incorrectly.

• Can disrupt normal gene function, leading to developmental disorders.

• Often detected through genetic testing or karyotyping.

• Example: Down syndrome (caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21).

Unsuccessful Pairing

– Errors in genetic inheritance where chromosomes fail to align or replicate correctly.

• May lead to gene expression abnormalities affecting physical and cognitive development.

• Often associated with hereditary conditions passed from parents to offspring.

• Example: Turner syndrome (caused by missing an X chromosome in females).

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

– A metabolic disorder caused by a mutation in the PAH gene, leading to the inability to break down phenylalanine.

• Can cause intellectual disabilities if untreated.

• Managed through a strict low-protein diet.

• Example: A child diagnosed with PKU must avoid foods high in phenylalanine, such as meat and dairy.

Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome

• – A rare genetic disorder caused by mutations in the HPRT1 gene, leading to uric acid buildup.

  • Characterized by self-injurious behavior, neurological impairments, and kidney problems.

  • No cure, but symptoms can be managed with medications.

  • Example: A child with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome may involuntarily bite their lips or fingers due to neurological dysfunction.

Fragile X Syndrome

– A genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene, affecting brain development.

• Leads to intellectual disability, speech delays, and social anxiety.

• More common in males than females.

• Example: A boy with Fragile X syndrome may have difficulty with eye contact and struggle with speech.

Incidence

– The number of new cases of a disorder in a population over a specific time.

• Helps track the spread and risk factors of mental health conditions.

• Often used in epidemiological studies.

• Example: The incidence of major depressive disorder increased during the pandemic.

Onset

– The point at which symptoms of a disorder first appear.

• Can be sudden (acute) or gradual (insidious).

• Important for determining the course of a condition.

• Example: A teenager experiences the onset of panic attacks after a traumatic event.

Likelihood

– The probability of developing a disorder based on genetic, environmental, or psychological factors.

• Influenced by family history, stress levels, and lifestyle.

• Higher in individuals with certain predispositions.

• Example: A person with a parent diagnosed with schizophrenia has a higher likelihood of developing the disorder.

Diagnosis

– The process of identifying and classifying a mental disorder based on symptoms and criteria.

• Essential for treatment planning and intervention.

• Requires clinical judgment and assessment tools.

• Example: A psychologist diagnoses a patient with generalized anxiety disorder based on excessive worry and physical symptoms.

Prognosis

– The expected outcome and progression of a disorder over time.

• Can be influenced by treatment, support systems, and severity of symptoms.

• Ranges from full recovery to chronic impairment.

• Example: With early intervention, the prognosis for mild depression is positive.

Recovery

• – The process of returning to a healthy state after experiencing a mental disorder.

  • Can be full (no symptoms) or partial (symptoms managed but still present).

  • Often involves therapy, medication, and lifestyle changes.

  • Example: A patient with PTSD undergoes therapy and gradually resumes daily activities.

Time-Limited Course Diagnosis

– A disorder that resolves within a specific timeframe without becoming chronic.

• Often applies to situational mental health issues.

• Symptoms diminish as stressors are removed or managed.

• Example: Adjustment disorder following job loss may last a few months and then subside.

Non-Chronic Condition

– A mental health disorder that does not persist long-term and may improve with treatment.

• Can be episodic or short-lived.

• Unlike chronic conditions, these disorders do not require lifelong management.

• Example: Acute stress disorder after a car accident may resolve within weeks without long-term effects.

Glutamate

• Definition: An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

• Context:

  • Plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation.

  • Excessive glutamate activity is linked to neurotoxicity and disorders like epilepsy.

• Example: High glutamate levels in stroke patients can cause brain cell damage

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

• Definition: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity.

• Context:

  • Helps regulate anxiety and prevent excessive neuronal firing.

  • Many sedatives and anti-anxiety drugs enhance ___ activity.

• Example: Benzodiazepines increase __ activity, leading to relaxation.

Serotonin

• Definition: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

• Context:

  • Low levels are associated with depression and anxiety disorders.

  • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used as antidepressants.

• Example: A person with low serotonin levels may experience mood swings and insomnia.

Dopamine

• Definition: A neurotransmitter linked to reward, motivation, and movement.

• Context:

  • Plays a role in addiction and reinforcement learning.

  • Dopamine deficiency is associated with Parkinson’s disease.

• Example: A person gambling feels excitement due to dopamine release.

Norepinephrine (NE) / Epinephrine (E)

• Definition: Neurotransmitters involved in the body's stress response.

• Context:

  • Norepinephrine helps maintain alertness and focus.

  • Epinephrine (adrenaline) is released during the fight-or-flight response.

• Example: A sudden loud noise triggers an adrenaline rush, increasing heart rate

Endorphins

• Definition: Natural pain relievers that enhance mood.

• Context:

  • Released during exercise, laughter, and pleasurable activities.

  • Bind to opioid receptors to reduce pain perception.

• Example: A runner experiences a "runner's high" due to endorphin release.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

• Definition: A neurotransmitter important for learning, memory, and muscle control.

• Context:

  • Plays a key role in attention and arousal.

  • Deficiency is linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

• Example: Curare poisoning blocks ACh receptors, leading to muscle paralysis.

Agonist

• Definition: A substance that enhances neurotransmitter activity.

• Context:

  • Can mimic neurotransmitters by binding to their receptors.

  • Commonly used in medications, such as opioids acting on endorphin receptors.

• Example: Morphine is an opioid agonist that reduces pain.

Antagonist

• Definition: A substance that inhibits neurotransmitter activity.

• Context:

  • Blocks neurotransmitter receptors, preventing activation.

  • Used in treatments for overdoses and some mental disorders.

• Example: Naloxone is an opioid antagonist that reverses heroin overdoses.

DSM-5 (2019)

• Definition: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, used for diagnosing mental disorders.

• Context:

  • Provides standardized criteria for diagnosing psychological conditions.

  • Used by mental health professionals worldwide for research and treatment.

• Example: A psychiatrist uses the DSM-5 to diagnose Major Depressive Disorder

DSM-5-TR (2022)

• Definition: An updated edition of DSM-5 that includes additional neurodevelopmental disorders.

• Context:

  • Revised criteria for some disorders, improving diagnostic accuracy.

  • Adds new insights into conditions like autism and ADHD.

• Example: A clinician refers to DSM-5-TR for updated diagnostic guidelines on autism spectrum disorder.

Dysfunction

• Definition: Impairment in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning.

• Context:

  • Affects daily activities, relationships, or work performance.

  • Can be caused by biological, psychological, or social factors.

• Example: A person with severe anxiety struggles to leave their house due to overwhelming fear.

Distress

• Definition: Psychological suffering experienced by an individual.

• Context:

  • Can manifest as emotional pain, anxiety, or depression.

  • Not all distress leads to a disorder unless it significantly impairs functioning.

• Example: Someone experiencing panic attacks feels intense emotional distress and helplessness.

Deviance

• Definition: Behavior that significantly deviates from societal norms.

• Context:

  • Cultural differences influence what is considered deviant.

  • Not all deviant behaviors indicate a psychological disorder.

• Example: Talking to imaginary friends is normal in children but may be concerning in adults.

Dangerousness

• Definition: The potential for harm to oneself or others.

• Context:

  • Often assessed in cases of severe mental illness, such as psychosis.

  • Not all individuals with mental disorders pose a danger.

• Example: A person experiencing hallucinations may believe others are trying to harm them and act aggressively in self-defense.

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

• Definition: A personality disorder characterized by odd thinking, social withdrawal, and eccentric behavior.

• Context:

  • Individuals may experience paranoia, magical thinking, or unusual speech patterns.

  • Considered a Cluster A personality disorder, often linked to schizophrenia.

• Example: A person believes they have telepathic abilities and avoids social interactions due to distrust.

Grandiose Delusions

• Definition: A false belief in having exceptional abilities, importance, or power.

• Context:

  • Often seen in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or narcissistic personality disorder.

  • Can lead to risky behavior, such as attempting to perform impossible feats.

• Example: A person insists they are a world leader despite no evidence.

Persecutory Delusionsc

• Definition: The belief that one is being targeted, spied on, or harmed by others.

• Context:

  • Common in schizophrenia and paranoid disorders.

  • Can result in extreme distrust and social isolation.

• Example: A person refuses to leave their house, fearing the government is monitoring them.

Formal Thought Disorder

• Definition: Disorganized thinking and speech, making communication difficult.

• Context:

  • Can involve loose associations, word salad, and tangential thinking.

  • Often linked to schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.

• Example: A person’s speech jumps between unrelated topics, making them hard to understand.

Double-Bind Hypothesis

• Definition: A theory suggesting that conflicting messages contribute to mental distress.

• Context:

  • Developed in the context of schizophrenia research.

  • Suggests that constant contradictory communication (e.g., "Be spontaneous!" while punishing spontaneity) can contribute to mental illness.

• Example: A child is told to express emotions but is scolded whenever they do, leading to confusion and distress.

Schizophreniform Disorder

• Definition: A psychotic disorder with schizophrenia-like symptoms lasting less than six months.

• Context:

  • Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech.

  • May develop into schizophrenia if symptoms persist beyond six months.

• Example: A person experiences paranoia and disorganized thinking for five months but later recovers.

Schizoaffective Disorder

• Definition: A disorder where schizophrenia symptoms co-occur with mood disorder symptoms (depression or mania).

• Context:

  • More severe than mood disorders alone but distinct from schizophrenia.

  • Individuals experience both psychotic symptoms and mood disturbances.

• Example: A person has hallucinations and paranoia while also experiencing episodes of deep depression.

Referential Delusions

• Definition: A false belief that random events, gestures, or comments are directed at oneself.

• Context:

  • Common in schizophrenia and paranoid disorders.

  • Can lead to social withdrawal and anxiety.

• Example: A person believes that a news anchor is sending secret messages just for them.

Delusion of Control

• Definition: The belief that an external force controls one’s thoughts or actions.

• Context:

  • Often occurs in schizophrenia and related disorders.

  • Can lead to fear and paranoia.

• Example: A person believes a secret organization is controlling their movement

Thought Insertion

• Definition: The belief that someone is placing thoughts into one’s mind.

• Context:

  • Associated with schizophrenia and psychotic disorders.

  • Individuals struggle to distinguish their own thoughts from external influence.

• Example: A person insists that an alien force is making them think specific thoughts.

Thought Withdrawal

• Definition: The belief that someone is removing thoughts from one’s mind.

• Context:

  • Often linked to paranoid schizophrenia.

  • Can cause distress and a feeling of loss of control.

• Example: A person claims that the government is stealing their ideas from their brain.

Somatic Delusions

• Definition: False beliefs about bodily functions or physical health.

• Context:

  • Often involves unrealistic concerns about one’s body (e.g., believing one's organs are missing).

  • Common in psychotic disorders and somatic symptom disorders.

• Example: A person believes their stomach is filled with snakes despite medical reassurance.

Bizarre Delusions

• Definition: Implausible false beliefs that are detached from reality.

• Context:

  • Different from non-bizarre delusions, which could be theoretically possible.

  • Typically seen in schizophrenia and severe psychotic disorders.

• Example: A person insists they were abducted by aliens and implanted with a microchip controlling their thoughts.

Erotomanic Delusions

• Definition: The false belief that someone (often a famous person) is in love with them.

• Context:

  • Common in delusional disorder and sometimes schizophrenia.

  • Can lead to stalking or obsessive behaviors.

• Example: A person believes a celebrity is secretly sending them romantic signals through TV interviews.

Nihilistic Delusions

• Definition: The false belief that oneself, others, or the world does not exist or is ending.

• Context:

  • Often seen in severe depression, schizophrenia, or psychotic disorders.

  • Sometimes linked to Cotard’s Syndrome, where individuals believe they are dead or missing organs.

• Example: A person insists that the world has already ended and they are living in a void.

Jealous Delusions

• Definition: The false belief that a romantic partner is being unfaithful despite no evidence.

• Context:

  • Can occur in delusional disorder and paranoid personality disorder.

  • May lead to aggressive or controlling behaviors.

• Example: A person constantly accuses their spouse of cheating, even when they have no reason to suspect infidelity.

Mixed Delusions

• Definition: A combination of two or more types of delusions without one being dominant.

• Context:

  • Seen in delusional disorder and some cases of schizophrenia.

  • Makes diagnosis challenging due to the variety of beliefs.

• Example: A person believes they are being followed by spies (persecutory delusion) and that they have a divine mission (grandiose delusion).

Non-Bizarre Delusions

• Definition: False beliefs that could theoretically be true but are still irrational.

• Context:

  • Different from bizarre delusions, which are completely impossible.

  • More common in delusional disorder rather than schizophrenia.

• Example: A person believes their neighbor is secretly recording their conversations through the walls.

Disorganized Speech (Formal Thought Disorder)

• Definition: Disorganized and illogical speech patterns.

• Context:

  • Includes loose associations, tangential speech, and word salad.

  • Thought processes appear fragmented or incoherent.

• Example: "The sky is blue, my favorite food is pizza, and yesterday I saw a dog."

Disorganized Behavior

• Definition: Unpredictable, bizarre, or inappropriate actions.

• Context:

  • May include agitation, inappropriate emotional responses, or childlike behavior.

  • Can interfere with daily functioning.

• Example: Laughing at a funeral or wearing heavy winter clothing in hot weather.

Catatonia

• Definition: Abnormal movement and behavior, ranging from rigid immobility to excessive motor activity.

• Context:

  • Includes mutism, posturing, waxy flexibility, and agitation.

  • Can be life-threatening if it leads to lack of food or movement for extended periods.

• Example: A person stands motionless for hours without responding to stimuli.

Alogia (Poverty of Speech)

• Definition: Reduced speech output and minimal verbal responses.

• Context:

  • Can be poverty of content (talking a lot but with little meaning).

  • Often linked to cognitive impairment.

• Example: When asked how they feel, they reply with "fine" and say nothing else.

Anhedonia

• Definition: Lack of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed.

• Context:

  • Affects hobbies, relationships, and daily activities.

  • Also seen in depression but differs in schizophrenia.

• Example: A former music lover stops listening to songs and shows no interest in concerts.

Avolition

• Definition: Decreased motivation to initiate and sustain activities.

• Context:

  • Leads to neglect of hygiene, work, and daily responsibilities.

  • Often mistaken for laziness.

• Example: A person spends the entire day doing nothing and avoids responsibilities.

Flat Affect (Affective Flattening)

• Definition: Reduced emotional expression in facial expressions, tone, and gestures.

• Context:

  • The person appears emotionless or indifferent.

  • Can affect interpersonal relationships.

• Example: Speaking in a monotone voice without any facial expression.

Social Withdrawal

• Definition: Avoidance of social interactions and difficulty forming relationships.

• Context:

  • Often results from paranoia, lack of motivation, or inability to connect emotionally.

  • Can lead to isolation and worsening of symptoms.

• Example: A person stops talking to friends and avoids leaving their house.

Lack of Spontaneity

• Definition: Decreased ability to engage in spontaneous actions or conversations.

• Context:

  • Can make interactions feel forced or robotic.

  • Related to impaired cognitive flexibility.

• Example: A person answers questions but never initiates conversation.

Inattention (Cognitive Impairment)

• Definition: Difficulty maintaining focus or following through on tasks.

• Context:

  • Can make daily functioning, work, and academics difficult.

  • Often underrecognized compared to other symptoms.

• Example: A student struggles to follow instructions and forgets assignments.

Frontal Lobe

• Definition: Brain region associated with reasoning, planning, impulse control, and decision-making.

• Context:

  • Dysfunction in the frontal lobe is linked to disorganized thinking and impaired judgment in schizophrenia.

  • Reduced activity in this area contributes to negative symptoms like avolition and social withdrawal.

• Example: A person with schizophrenia struggles to plan their daily activities or make rational decisions.

Amygdala

• Definition: Brain structure that regulates emotions, fear responses, and threat detection.

• Context:

  • Overactivity in the amygdala is associated with paranoia, persecutory delusions, and heightened emotional responses.

  • Abnormal connectivity between the amygdala and other brain regions may contribute to hallucinations and emotional dysregulation.

• Example: A person experiences extreme fear, believing they are constantly being watched, despite no real threat.

Hippocampus

• Definition: Brain structure crucial for memory formation and spatial navigation.

• Context:

  • Reduced hippocampal volume is linked to memory deficits and difficulty distinguishing between real and imagined events.

  • Dysfunction in this area may contribute to hallucinations and delusions.

• Example: A person misremembers past events, believing they have experienced things that never actually happened.