CH 1: Science, Society, and Research Related to CJ and Criminology

What are the 4 common errors in everyday reasoning?

• overgeneralization

• selective/inaccurate observation

• illogical reasoning

• resistanc to change

Overgeneralization

An error in reasoning that occurs when we conclude that what we have observed or known to be true for a subset of cases holds true for the entire set

Selective Observation

observations chosen because they are in accord with preferences or beliefs of the observer

Inaccurate Observation

observations based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality

Illogical Reasoning

prematurely jumping to conclusions and arguing on the basis of invalid assumptions

Resistance to Change

the reluctance to change ideas in light of new information due to

• ego based commitments

• excessive devotion to tradition

• uncritical agreement with authority

Social Science

the use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes, including questions related to criminology and criminal justice; the knowledge produced by these investigations

Science

a set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations

Epistemology

branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is gained or aquired

Transparency

an important feature of the scientific method that requires procedures, methods, and data analysis of any study to be presented clearly for the purpose of replication

Peer Review

process in which a journal editor sends a submitted article to two or three experts who judge whether the paper should be accepted, revised, or resubmitted

Pseudoscience

A belief or practice that is claimed to be scientific but lacks empirical support and does not adhere to the scientific method.

Phrenology

A pseudoscience focused on the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits, behaviors, and personalities

What are the 4 types of SOCIAL RESEARCH?

• Descriptive Research

• Exploratory Research

• Explanatory Research

• Evaluation Research

Descriptive Research

research in which phenomena are defined and described, not interested in explaining phenomenon, just in describing its frequencies or its qualities

• police report/ surveys

Exploratory Research

research in which social phenomena are investigated without prior expectations to develop explanations of them

Explanatory Research

research that seeks to identify causes or effects of socia phenomena

Evaluation Research

research on the effects of social programs

Positivism

our knowledge of reality in rooted in observable and measurable phenomena rather than abstract theorization or metaphysical speculation

Post-Positivism

belief that there is an empirical reality, but our understanding of it is limited by its complexity and by the biases and other limitations of researchers

Intersubjective Agreement

agreement between scientists about the nature of reality, often upheld as a more reasonable goal for science than certainty about an objective reality

Interpretivism (Interpretivist Philosophy)

the belief that reality is socially constructed and that the goal of social scientists is to understand what meanings people give to that reality

Critical Theory

focuses on examining structures, patterns, and meanings but rests on the premise that power differences have shaped these structures and patterns

Feminist Research

research with a focus on women’s lives that often include oreintation to personal experience, subjective orientations, the researcher’s standpoint and emotions

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

type of research in which the researcher involves some organizational memers as active participants throughout the process of studying the organization; the goal is making changes in the organization

Quantitative Methods

numerical, methods such as surveys and experiments

Qualitative Methods

methods such as observation, interviewing, written/spoken data, no numerical interpretation

Triangulation

the use of multiple methods to study on research question; the use of two or more different measures of the same variable

Experimental Approach

an approach in which the researcher assigns individuals to two or more groups in a way that equates the characterisitcs of individuals in the group, except for variation in the group’s exposure to the independent variable

Participant Observation

field research in which a researcher develops a sustained and intensive relationship with people while they go about their normal activites

Survey

method of gathering information from a sample of individuals through standarized questions or interviews

Intensive Interviewing

open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee’s feelings, experiences, perception

Secondary Data Analysis

analysis of data collected by someone other than the researcher or assistant, data from other official sources, surveys

Content Analysis

a research method for systematically analyzing and making inferences from text

Crime Mapping

geographical mapping strategiesused to visualize a number of things, including location, distance, and patterns of crime and their correlations

(2) Research Question

a question that is answered through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, empirical data

Theory

a logically interrelated set of propositions/idea about empirical reality, attempt to explain things

Theoretical Constructs

a concept or idea used in scientific research to explain and understand phenomena or behaviors that are not directly observable or measurable

Falsifiable

being capable of being proven wrong

Deductive Reasoning

type of reasoning that moves from the general to the specific

Inductive Reasoning

type of reasoning that moves from specific to the general

Serendipitous Findings (Anomalous Findings)

unexpected patterns in data that stimulate new ideas or theoretical approaches

The Research Circle

the process of conducting research, moving from theory to data and back from data to theory and back again, elements of the research process, including theories, hypotheses, data collection, and data analysis

Deductive Research

the type of research in which a specific expectation is deduced from a general premise and is then tested