unit 4: psychology - motivation, wellbeing and health

sources of motivation — motivation

the conscious or unconscious drive underlying the behaviours that we initiate or maintain

sources of motivation — cognition

desires that develop from processing and interpreting information (higher-order processes)

sources of motivation — social

humans feel a strong need to have relationships with others

self-determination theory — Deci and Ryan (2000) — self determination

individual’s ability to determine their own actions → important in developing motivation

Deci and Ryan (2000) — amotivation, entrinsic and intrinsic motivation — motivation

lack of motivation

no sense of intention at all, due to the person:

• not valuing the activity

• not feeling competent

• not feeling that the behaviour will produce the desired outcome

Deci and Ryan (2000) — amotivation, entrinsic and intrinsic motivation — extrinsic

motivation to complete a task or achieve a goal tied to receiving something in return or avoiding punishment

• when the reward is achieved, the behaviour usually stops

• more self-determination involved but not as much as intrinsic

Deci and Ryan (2000) — amotivation, entrinsic and intrinsic motivation — intrinsic

most self determined level, where the activity is valued for its own sake, as it brings satisfaction, enjoyment and self-gratification

Deci and Ryan (2000) — self-determination continuum — regulatory styles

how a person usually manages their behaviour, based on the extent to which they have internalised their rules and values

• intrinsic motivation = greater wellbeing and endurance

Deci and Ryan (2000) — psychological needs for motivation — autonomy

the need to feel in control of one’s own behaviours, and is particularly critical to self-determination

• choose and manage actions, feel acknowledged

• undermined when controlled by others, reduce focus on self-management

Deci and Ryan (2000) — psychological needs for motivation — competence

need to feel capable of mastering new skills and to attain goals

• experience mastery and feel that they have skills and abilities to deal with their environment

• person will feel capable and experience a sense of achievement

Deci and Ryan (2000) — psychological needs for motivation — relatedness

need to form relationships with others and to feel a sense of belonging

• allows us to affiliate and help achieve things we cannot do alone

• without it is difficult to be self determined, lacking support and assistance required

Deci and Ryan (2000) — applications to psychology

influence on educational and workplace settings

• likely benefits for building self-determination across communities

educators and supervisors should focus on:

• giving students and staff choice in their tasks to foster autonomy

• providing supportive feedback and opportunities for success to build a sense of competence

• awareness of the importance of building relationships in motivation

Deci and Ryan (2000) — strengths

three needs are considered as universal, so theory is applicable across culture and context

• intrinsic motivation = more effective is supported by observing people spending more time participating in activities that are enjoyable and rewarding

• empirical evidence supporting theory’s application in workplace and school contexts (may be context specific)

Deci and Ryan (2000) — limitations

theory tends to minimise importance of extrinsic motivation = unrealistic

• theory is complex so difficult to comprehend and apply

• influence of individual situation limits its application across contexts

hierarchy of needs — Maslow (1954, 1970)

proposed that humans are motivated to fulfil a hierarchy of needs, with basic physiological needs first and later needs become increasingly psychological

• focused on the idea that humans have a need to grow and self-actualise — to reach their full potential

Maslow (1954) — levels of motivation based on deficiency and growth needs

hierarchy of needs — tiered list of physical and psychological needs, from simple to complex, which we are motivated to satisfy

• basic needs are at the bottom, psychological needs at a higher level and self-fulfilment needs at the top

• needs at lower levels need to be at least partially satisfied before needs at higher levels can be addressed

everyone is capable, and strives to meet their needs at progressively higher levels

• order may vary for individuals, and persons may be motivated to satisfy more than one need at a time

• people move up and down the hierarchy over their life

Maslow (1954) — deficiency needs

motivators required for survival, thus we are highly motivated to meet these needs

• once met, they cease to motivate us

• in the original hierarchy, first four levels are all deficiency needs

Maslow (1954) — deficiency needs — physiological

basic biological requirements for health and energy; absence threatens survival

Maslow (1954) — deficiency needs — safety

both physical and emotional safety; absence causes anxiety

Maslow (1954) — deficiency needs — love and belongingness

need to connect with others — to receive love and give love; absence causes isolation

Maslow (1954) — deficiency needs — esteem

both self-esteem and respect from others; absence results in feelings of inferiority

Maslow (1954) — growth needs — self-actualisation

unique to the individual, represents their peak functioning and ‘being all they can be’, leading to positive well-being and a growing sense of maturation

• absence causes restlessness, discontent and a feeling of incompleteness

Maslow (1970) — cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs — cognitive

gaining knowledge through sensory experiences; satisfying curiosity and increasing comprehension in order to better understand life

Maslow (1970) — cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs — aesthetic

searching for and appreciating beauty (physical beauty and order and grace)

Maslow (1970) — cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs — transcendence

a need to connect to a higher reality beyond the normal human experiences, fulfilling needs for unity and connectedness with the universe; essentially, undergoing transcendent experiences

Maslow (1970) — concept of self-actualisation

everyone is capable and strives to be self-actualising, however few people ever do

• we may experience moments of self-actualisation = peak experiences or transcendence experiences — transient feeling of profound joy, love and connectedness with the world

Maslow (1970) — characteristics of a self-actualised person

outward and problem focused — idealism, working for a greater cause, life devoted to ‘being values’ — higher values such as truth and goodness

• creative, spontaneous, value privacy;

• self-confident, accepting of reality, self and others;

• frequent peak experiences;

• deep and loving relationships, gratitude for the everyday

Maslow (1970) — applications of theory

widely applied in education: students cannot easily learn, if they have not eaten, feel unsafe, or don’t feel a sense of belonging

Maslow (1970) — strengths of theory

acknowledges the importance of, and provides a framework for, people to achieve personal growth

• focuses on the inherent goodness of humans and studied healthy rather than unhealthy psychological development

Maslow (1970) — limitations of theory

small sample with very high bias (only those Maslow felt were self-actualised, mostly US based) and all data collected highly subjective

• oversimplified model which conceptualises needs as independent and ordered

• results are not general — needs of each individual are expected to vary

• overly positive — do people always strive for a higher level

models of wellbeing — wellbeing

a state of happiness and contentment, with low levels of distress, overall good physical and mental health and outlook, or good quality of life

subjective — model of subjective wellbeing — Diener (1984)

self-reported well-being, since it refers to both the balance of positive and negative affect and the overall cognitive assessment of life, as viewed by the individual

Diener (1984) — key components — life satisfaction

cognitive assessment a person makes of their life, both globally and of the individual parts

• usually influenced by a positive mood, often related to domains closest to a person

• influenced by overall balance of positive and negative experiences in a given amount of time

• person evaluates their satisfaction relative to how it measures up to their own goals

Diener (1984) — key components — affective balance

emotional component — experience and expression of emotions

• positive affect: pleasant or favourable emotions

• negative affect: unpleasant or distressing emotions

global assessment of their happiness based on the equilibrium between the two = hedonistic balance

Diener (1984) — applications of theory

theory is widely applicable — life satisfaction and affective balance are applicable to most cultures, and can be adapted for cultural differences

• holistic approach which incorporates multiple aspects effectively — not just ‘happiness’ or positive experiences — hence seemingly good validity

Diener (1984) — strengths of theory

theory is widely applicable — life satisfaction and affective balance are applicable to most cultures, and the theory can be adapted to allow for cultural differences

• holistic approach which incorporates multiple aspects effectively — not just positive experiences — hence seemingly good validity

Diener (1984) — limitations of theory

tends to minimise external influences in favour of the internal views of the individual

• measures are usually self-reported, hence tend to measure explicit attitudes, which are generally less accurate due to social desirability bias

• SWB can be affected by moods (life satisfaction may vary due to emotions on the day) and so may not be reliable across time

Ryff (1989) — psychological wellbeing scale

clearly defined each factor and operationalised high and low dimensions for each

• developed an inventory consisting on 84 (long form), 42 medium form) or 18 (short form) statements to which participants rate their agreement

• higher scores in each dimension indicate higher functioning (negative items are reverse scored)

Ryff (1989) — empirical research

Ryff surveyed 321 male and female young, middle-aged and older adults, who self-selected as financially, educationally and physically fit, with the PWB

• she compared the results with those from older studies and found some items were not well represented in wellbeing previously

• she also found distinct differences for the different age groups across some of the six measures

Ryff (1989) — autonomy

individuals make their own decisions and judgements by their own will; they feel comfortable with them, live by them and judge themselves based on them

• high autonomy = independent thinker (self-determined) who makes and evaluates their decisions based on their own moral code

• low autonomy = makes decisions based on other people’s evaluations, judgements and social norms, even when they do not agree with them, as they are deeply concerned about others’ opinions

Ryff (1989) — environmental mastery

individuals change/ choose the environment to suit their needs and take advantage of opportunities, thus feeling able to cope with the world

• high environmental mastery = confident in their ability to choose or change the environment to suit them and cope with multiple complex tasks required in daily life

• low environmental mastery = overwhelmed by complex tasks and feels unable to change the environment to suit them, thus feeling a lack of control over the external world and struggles to cope with daily life

Ryff (1989) — personal growth

individuals develop themselves through seeking new experiences and knowledge

• strong personal growth = embraces new experiences, uses them to improve and has a sense of reaching their potential

• weak personal growth = fixed mindset, does not attempt to grow through challenges and past experience, so feels stagnant and bored

Ryff (1989) — positive relations with others

individuals see value in forming mutually supportive bonds with others and in mentorship, have intimacy, empathy and feel a sense of belonging

• strong positive relations = mutually supportive and caring relationships with others, understands relationships and feels empathy

• weak positive relations = struggles to understand and form relationships with others, and has little concern for the wellbeing

Ryff (1989) — purpose in life

individuals seek meaning and direction over the lifetime through goals, and contribute to something greater than themselves

• strong purpose in life = believes in the meaning of past and present events and sets goals to guide themselves in future

• weak purple in life = does not see it as having meaning, so they do not reflect does not see life as having meaning, so they do not reflect or set life goals

Ryff (1989) — self-acceptance

individuals have true knowledge of who they are, both weaknesses and strengths, and feel positively about themselves

• high self acceptance = able to acknowledge their personal strengths and weaknesses and still see themselves as worthwhile

• low self acceptance = does not feel good about themselves and their life and wishes to be different to who they are

Ryff (1989) — applications of theory

PWB has been applied in multiple contexts e.g. differences across age groups

• has been used to show those with ideal sleep patterns had higher levels of all factors except autonomy

• meta-analysis of interventions to improve eudaemonic psychological well-being showed that certain practices can improve wellbeing, with strongest influences on environmental mastery, personal growth, and self acceptance

• theory can be applied in therapy to improve measures of well-being

Ryff (1989) — strengths

theory was more detailed than prior existing concepts of wellbeing, focusing on psychological wellbeing and identifying multiple dimensions which were previously unreported

• concentrates on eudaemonic wellbeing instead of the hedonic wellbeing focus of previous works

• supported by empirical evidence obtained via the PWB; the tool has high validity and reliability and so enables measurement of psychological wellbeing

Ryff (1989) — limitations

theory’s focus on positive aspects of psychological wellbeing minimises the impact of negative aspects

• theory also does not consider other influences on wellbeing

• self-reported nature of the PWB tool invites bias; suggested supplementing results with other data sources, such as observations of people close to the individual

stress as defined by Selye (1936)

non-specific response of the body to any demand

• these demands can be physiological or psychological

types of stress — distress (Selye, 1983)

a negative stress response which tends to be accompanied by physiological activity and negative feelings

• events causing distress are readily identifiable but vary among individuals

• these physiological changes (+ maladaptive coping mechanisms) can result in significant health risks

types of stress — eustress (Selye, 1983)

positive stress response which occurs when an individual feels stressed but capable and prepared for dealing with the stressor

• thus motivates them and has a positive effect on psychological state and functioning

stressors

any source of stress, whether derived from internal or external factors

types of stressors — psychological

due to cognitive or affective factors

• internal and external stressors

types of stressors — environmental

usually out of our control, and relate to the physical conditions and surroundings of the person

• they can apply to one environment and not others

types of stressors — social

derived from personal relationships and societal interactions

types of stressors — cultural

derived from cultural identity, values and norms

• migration and acculturation are often periods of intense stress

characteristics of stressors — internal source

arise from the individual’s own mind and body rather than the external environment

• usually, there is an interaction of factors

characteristics of stressors — external source

arise from events outside the individual and may be environmental or situational

characteristics of stressors — acute duration

arises in response to short term stressors, most often daily pressures, although it can be in response to more unusual events

• usually, stress appears then disappears over short period of time and so does not do physiological or psychological damage

• since the body responds to stress by activating the sympathetic nervous system, mild stress may. be helpful by arousing and motivating us

characteristics of stressors — chronic duration

the body’s response to a long-term stressor

• thus repeated acute stressors can become chronic also

• consider the cumulative impact of continual stressors which do not allow sufficient recovery time

• the longer duration of chronic stress results in the body and mind being depleted and exhausted

characteristics of stressors — strength/ intensity

stressors exist along a continuum; a minor event is less stressful than a major event

• the persons’ perception of the stress is a better predictor of ill health than an objective measurement of exposures to stressful events

• some events are a source of immense stress for an individual or for a whole community, yet the effects are still varied depending on the individual

stress as a response — General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model (Selye, 1936, 1983)

the body’s typical response pattern in terms of resistance to stress over time

• Selye theorised that adaptation (a bodily mechanism) is required to cope with stress

• thus, stressors trigger a series of physiological reactions as a response

• the role of these responses is to ease the impact of the stressor

stressor → physiological reactions → stress as response

physiological response to stress — heart rate, breathing rate

characteristics — alarm (shock)

initial phase (0-6h on average) of reaction to the stimulus

• we can relate well to these initial responses — dizziness, cold feeling, and shakiness, along with a feeling of helplessness and panic

• resistance falls and act similarly to experiencing injury — drop in body temperature, blood pressure, and muscle tone

• this phase is sometimes said to be part of the passive ‘freeze’ reaction to a threatening stimulus

• due to a number of factors — parasympathetic overdrive (vagal response), hormonal flooding dissociation

characteristics of stages — alarm (counter shock)

it kicks in about 6-48 after the initial stressor occurs (hormones take time to have their effects)

• resistance to stress is above normal during this stage, but cortisol release can eventually have negative impacts on the body

• this response to the stressor occurs when the threat is detected by the amygdala, which sends a nervous signal to the hypothalamus via the sympathetic nervous system

• the branch of autonomic (unconscious) nervous system which prepares the body for action

• the hypothalamus signals to the adrenal glands to release ‘stress hormones’, thus initiating the fight-or-flight response of the individual

• via the sympathetic nerves, it stimulates the adrenaline and noradrenaline

• via the pituitary, it stimulates release of the hormone ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol (longer lasting)

characteristics of stages — resistance

the body tries to stabilise its internal environment (restore homeostasis) while fighting the stressor

• the sympathetic nervous system cannot continue to be active forever, so the body now reverses its effect by activating the parasympathetic nervous system

• however, the stress hormones continue to be secreted, so arousal is greater than normal

• since stress hormones continue to be secreted, our immune system will be compromised; we will have enough resources to fight the current stressor but not further stressors

• this makes us vulnerable to illness after a period of intense stress

characteristics of stages — exhaustion

if we cope effectively with the stressor during the resistance stage, the parasympathetic nervous system will return the body to normal functioning

• if not, the stress continues, and the body reaches physical and mental exhaustion, where its reserves are depleted

• the stress hormones are depleted, adrenal glands no longer function optimally, blood glucose decreases, resulting in fatigue

• chronic stress — weakening of body results in increased susceptibility to disease, while the effects on the mind increase the risk of poor mental health

• at this point, cortisol’s negative effects on the immune system and heart are clearly evident, along with the mental symptoms of burnout

Selye, 1936, 1983) — strengths and limitations

theory helped to conceptualise stress and its relationship to health

• however, the focus on the adrenal cortex and cortisol ignores evidence that different stressors trigger different responses from different organs

• unique biological and environmental factors affecting the individual are not considered

application of the Social Readjustment Scale (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) to assess the impact of stressors of individual health and wellbeing

the adjustment/ adaptation required by certain major life changes/ events

• thus a high number of stressful life events in a short period of time increases the vulnerability of the person to illness

stress → physiological/ psychological reactions → alarm, resistance, exhaustion

(Holmes and Rahe, 1967) — problematic assumptions

• life changes are inherently stressful;

• if pushed beyond the limits required to cope with the stressor, the person will become ill (mental or physical);

• the adjustment level required from all persons is similar for the same stressor;

• factors such as personality and prior experiences do not alter the response to stress

(Holmes and Rahe, 1967) — social readjustment scale

to quantify stress, they examined the medical records of 5000+ patients and 43 stressful life events were identified

• convenience sample of 394 ranked them from those requiring most protracted and intense readjustment to least

• events reordered and assigned numerical value known as Life Change Units where the higher the value, the more intense the readjustment required

(Holmes and Rahe, 1967) — administering social readjustment scale

the scale is administered to the individual, who marks those events they have experienced in the past year

• the scores for all the events are tallied to give a total stress score

• a score from 150-299 LCUs indicates a 50% chance of suffering from stress

• a score of more than 300 LCUs indicates an 80% chance of developing a stress related illness

Rahe (1970) — study

2500 male American sailors completing the social Readjustment scale for the past six months

• detailed medical records were kept during the following six-month deployment

• a correlation of +0.118 was recorded for score and frequency of illness

Rahe (1970) — correlations

the scale has been administered as part of many more studies since, with similarly small correlations

• the small (but significant) correlations indicates that while stressful events may contribute to illness, they are not the only factor

• other versions of the scale have also been developed with more specific populations in mind or for personal perceptions of stress

(Holmes and Rahe, 1967) — advantages and disadvantages

allows quantitative measurement of stress, hence statistical analysis

• however, subjective measurement introduces bias;

• respondents cannot mention items beyond those included in the list;

• does not take into account individual circumstances;

• most people experience major life events rarely, but minor stresses daily

stress as a transaction — Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)

stress is a consequence of a process where the individual appraises (assesses) the significance of the situation and their to manage it, which leads to their coping response

stressor → stress (cognitive appraisal) → response (coping)

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — interaction between individual and environment

stress is a ‘transaction’ between the person and the environment, which is influenced by the individual’s perception of the stressor, and the resources they have to cope

• the environment provides the stressors, and the individual’s response depends on their unique appraisal of the event and the resources they have to deal with it

individuals need to continuously assess the current situation that produces stress;

• however, high levels of stress responses will be produced when there is an imbalance between the requirements produced by the stressor and the individual’s perception of their ability to cope with it

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — role of cognitive appraisal

subjective interpretation made by an individual of stimulus in the environment, or the cognitive abilities used to assess situations

• it influences whether the stimulus is stressful or not for that individual

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — primary appraisal

the initial ‘threat' assessment’: is the situation a threat, a challenge, and is it relevant/ irrelevant to us

• a stressor which is important to us and may cause great harm is more likely to cause a stress reaction

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — secondary appraisal

the assessment of what resources (internal and external) we have available to help us cope with the stressor

• includes personal skills and factors, as well as assets

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — primary and secondary appraisal

secondary appraisal may confirm our primary appraisal — note that these two occur simultaneously, not sequentially

• the process of reappraisal may occur as the situation evolves — we often change our initial negative appraisal to a more positive one

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — methods of coping

process where a person deals with the stressful stimulus and/ or the emotional effects

• through behavioural means, often when the stressor is perceived as exceeding our ability to deal with it

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — emotion-focused coping

aims to manage the emotional response to the stress by decreasing the emotional distress experienced

• these strategies often aim to reduce the negative emotions by changing the way in which the situation is viewed

• they tend to be used when the situation is out of a person’s control or when they perceive they do not have the resources to cope

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — problem-focused coping

aims to resolve the root issue or solve the problem

• they can either. be inwardly focused on the self or outwardly focused on the problem

• they tend to be used when the person perceives that they have the resources to cope effectively

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — advantages

focuses on psychological aspects of stress (controllable) — stress is viewed as a transaction with the environment, so the individual is not passive in the process;

• focuses on individual nature of the appraisal and stress response;

• explains why different persons respond differently and why responses may change over time;

• provides a means of thinking about our stressors and so changing the ways in which we spend

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) — disadvantages

very difficult to test empirically (model emphases the highly subjective nature of stress and personalised response);

• stress can be experienced without thinking consciously about the issue, so there is clearly a physiological aspect to stress which is not addressed by the model

health-related consequences of stress — coping strategies

specific methods (behavioural/ psychological) that are used by individuals to manage or reduce the stress produced by a given stressor

health-related consequences of stress — maladaptive coping strategies

avoid confronting and dealing with the stressors appropriately

• for this reason, they usually involve unhelpful and unhealthy coping strategies, which exacerbate the adverse effects of stress

• drinking/ taking drugs/ smoking

• denial and procrastination

• negative self-talk and self-blame

• social withdrawal and avoidance of the stressor

health-related consequences of stress — adaptive coping strategies

involve confronting and dealing with the stressors appropriately

• these strategies, either involving dealing with a stressor appropriately or managing the negative emotions and cognitions that may arise from it, are beneficial and productive

• facing a problem directly and solving/ making a plan to do so;

• acceptance, reframing a situation positively, humour; journaling; meditation; prayer;

• exercise, hobbies and socialising;

• seeking counselling, therapy or talking to others