Religious Developments in Byzantium and Western Europe (Early Medieval Europe)

Key vocabulary covering political figures, institutions, technologies, and religious developments of Byzantium and early medieval Western Europe.

Aegean Sea

Body of water between Greece and Anatolia; vital to Byzantine maritime routes.

Asceticism

Severe self-discipline and self-denial practiced to achieve spiritual goals in early Christian monasticism.

Byzantine Empire

Eastern half of the Roman Empire, ruled from Constantinople, 5th–15th c.; powerful economic and cultural center.

Caesaropapism

Byzantine policy in which the emperor held both secular authority and a prominent role in church affairs.

Constantinople

Capital founded by Constantine (330 c.e.); heart of Byzantine politics, trade, and culture.

Hagia Sophia

Massive domed church built by Justinian; later an Islamic mosque and modern museum in Istanbul.

Justinian

Byzantine emperor (527–565) known for codifying Roman law and ambitious but brief reconquests in the west.

Corpus iuris civilis

“Body of the Civil Law”; comprehensive codification of Roman law commissioned by Justinian.

Theodora

Empress and wife of Justinian; influential advisor from humble origins.

Greek Fire

Secret Byzantine incendiary weapon that burned even on water; key to naval defense against Muslims.

Theme System

Byzantine provincial organization placing civil & military authority under a general who recruited free peasant soldiers.

Iconoclasm

Byzantine movement (726–843) to destroy religious images, begun by Emperor Leo III.

Patriarchs

Senior bishops of Constantinople who headed the Eastern church under imperial oversight.

Papacy

Office of the bishop of Rome (pope); asserted primacy over all Western Christianity.

Pope Gregory I

Pontiff (590–604) who strengthened papal authority, defended Rome, and promoted missionary activity.

Schism of 1054

Mutual excommunication dividing Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.

Monasticism

Religious way of life in communities of monks or nuns embracing poverty, chastity, and obedience.

St. Basil of Caesarea

4th-century monk whose rule provided discipline for Byzantine monasteries.

St. Benedict of Nursia

6th-century Italian monk; his rule shaped Western monastic practice.

St. Scholastica

Benedict’s sister; adapted his rule for convents, guiding religious life of nuns.

Missionaries

Religious envoys spreading Christianity; vital in conversion of Germanic, Slavic, and Scandinavian peoples.

Cyril and Methodius

Byzantine missionary brothers who evangelized Slavs and created the Cyrillic alphabet.

Cyrillic Alphabet

Writing system devised for Slavic languages, facilitating literacy and Orthodox Christianity.

Prince Vladimir of Kiev

Russian ruler who converted to Orthodox Christianity in 989, opening Russia to Byzantine influence.

Odoacer

Germanic general who deposed the last Western Roman emperor in 476 c.e.

Franks

Most powerful early medieval Germanic kingdom; embraced Catholic Christianity and built Carolingian dynasty.

Carolingian Dynasty

Frankish ruling house (751–843) founded by Charles Martel; peaked under Charlemagne.

Charles Martel

Frankish leader who halted Muslim advance at the Battle of Tours (732); grandfather of Charlemagne.

Charlemagne

Frankish king (768–814) who revived imperial rule in Western Europe; crowned emperor in 800.

Missi Dominici

“Envoys of the lord ruler”; royal agents who inspected local authorities for Charlemagne.

Louis the Pious

Charlemagne’s son; inability to control nobles led to partition of empire in 843.

Magyars

Nomadic horsemen from the steppe who raided central Europe before settling in Hungary.

Vikings

Norse seafarers renowned for raiding, trading, and settlement across Europe (8th–11th c.).

Heavy Plow

Iron-tipped plow with mould-board suited to northern soils; boosted medieval European agriculture.

Norse Merchant-Mariners

Scandinavian traders who linked Northern Europe with Byzantine and Abbasid markets via river and sea routes.