final exam review

What is the primary function of hormones in the endocrine system?

To maintain homeostasis, respond to stress, regulate essential functions, control metabolic rate, and direct growth and development.

What are the two main types of hormones?

Amino acids (proteins) and steroids.

How do hormones reach their target tissues?

They are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and bind to receptor sites on specific tissues.

What are tropic hormones?

Hormones that regulate other endocrine glands.

What is hypersecretion in the context of endocrine disorders?

The excessive secretion of hormones from a gland.

What is hyposecretion in the context of endocrine disorders?

The insufficient secretion of hormones from a gland.

Name the major glands of the endocrine system.

Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries/testes, pineal, and thymus.

What is the role of insulin?

To regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

What does glucagon do?

It regulates glycogen metabolism.

What hormone is responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics?

Estrogen.

What is the function of progesterone?

To prepare and maintain the endometrium for implantation.

What is the role of testosterone?

To promote male secondary sexual characteristics and erection.

What does thyroxine regulate?

Cellular metabolism.

What is the function of vasopressin (ADH)?

To stimulate water retention by the kidneys.

What is cortisol's role in the body?

To regulate metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and to have anti-inflammatory effects.

What does aldosterone do?

It causes kidneys to retain sodium and regulates electrolyte balance.

What is the feedback mechanism that regulates hormonal secretions?

Negative feedback, where hormone levels are fed back to the gland to decrease secretion.

What hormone stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).

What is hyperpituitarism?

A chronic disease characterized by excessive production and secretion of pituitary hormones.

What causes gigantism?

Increased growth hormone prior to epiphyseal plate closure, often due to an anterior pituitary adenoma.

What is acromegaly?

Increased growth hormone after epiphyseal plate closure, also typically caused by an anterior pituitary adenoma.

What is prolactin overproduction and its effects?

Usually caused by a small pituitary adenoma, leading to galactorrhea (milk secretion from non-pregnant breasts) and amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual periods).

What is hypopituitarism?

A deficiency or absence of pituitary hormones, often more common in women.

What condition is characterized by underdevelopment in children due to decreased growth hormone (GH)?

Dwarfism.

What are some causes of dwarfism?

Idiopathic, congenital, cranial hemorrhage during birth.

What is diabetes insipidus?

Excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine due to a deficiency in vasopressin (ADH).

What are the symptoms of diabetes insipidus?

Polyuria and polydipsia.

What are the thyroid hormones?

T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine).

What is a simple goiter?

Enlargement of the thyroid gland usually caused by insufficient dietary iodine.

What are the symptoms of a simple goiter?

Swollen mass in the anterior neck, dyspnea, and difficulty swallowing.

What is Hashimoto's thyroiditis?

An autoimmune condition causing chronic immune system attack on the thyroid gland.

What are the signs and symptoms of Hashimoto's thyroiditis?

Gradual, painless enlargement of the thyroid gland, pressure in the neck, and difficulty swallowing.

What is Graves' disease?

An autoimmune disorder causing over-production of thyroid hormone.

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism (Graves' disease)?

Exophthalmos, insomnia, weight loss, rapid heartbeat.

What is cretinism?

A congenital condition caused by an absent or nonfunctional thyroid gland.

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism (cretinism)?

Mental and growth retardation, short forehead, broad nose, protruding tongue.

What is myxedema?

A potentially life-threatening condition developing in older children or adults due to lack of thyroxine.

What are the symptoms of myxedema?

Jelly-like infiltrations under skin, dry skin, non-pitting edema, cold intolerance.

What is hyperparathyroidism?

Overproduction of parathyroid hormone (PTH) leading to demineralization of bone.

What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?

Muscle atrophy, GI pain, and nausea.

What is hypoparathyroidism?

Reduced production of PTH hormone leading to excessive calcium deposits in tissue.

What is Cushing syndrome?

Increased cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex.

What are the symptoms of Cushing syndrome?

Weight gain, hypertension, emotional instability, fatigue, moon face.

What is Addison disease?

A condition characterized by partial or complete failure of adrenocortical function, often with gradual onset.

What are common signs and symptoms of Addison disease?

Fatigue, weakness, gastrointestinal disturbances, weight loss, fluid and electrolyte imbalances, cardiovascular problems, depression, anxiety, and 'bronzing' of skin tone.

What is diabetes mellitus?

A group of diseases that result in elevated blood glucose levels, including Type 1, Type 2, Type 1.5, and Type 3 diabetes.

What characterizes Type 1 diabetes mellitus?

Insulin deficiency primarily occurring in children and young adults, often following a viral infection that damages pancreatic beta cells.

What is the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus?

It is the most common type, accounting for 90% of diabetes cases, typically seen in older, overweight/obese adults.

What is Type 1.5 diabetes mellitus?

Also known as Latent Autoimmune Diabetes of Adults (LADA), it has a gradual onset and features of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

What is Type 3 diabetes mellitus?

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), characterized by decreased ability to metabolize glucose during pregnancy, usually resolving after delivery.

What are the causes of precocious puberty?

Tumors of the testes/ovaries, hypothalamic or pituitary dysfunction or tumors, and chronic ingestion of hormones or sex steroids.

What is the typical onset age for precocious puberty in boys and girls?

Before age 9 for boys and before age 8 for girls.

What is the role of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in diabetes?

AGEs form when proteins and lipids become glycated after exposure to sugars, leading to complications in diabetes.

What is insulin resistance?

A condition where tissues are insensitive or have impaired responses to insulin, commonly seen in Type 2 diabetes.

What dietary changes can help manage diabetes?

Adopting a diet with low glycemic index foods and controlling carbohydrate intake.

What is the significance of weight reduction in Type 2 diabetes?

Weight reduction may restore insulin responsiveness in patients with insulin resistance.

What is the typical management for gestational diabetes?

Control of diet, limited intake of simple sugars, and possibly insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents.

What is the autoimmune component of Type 1 diabetes?

Patients have antibodies directed against their own pancreatic beta cells, leading to insulin deficiency.

What are the potential complications of untreated Addison disease?

Severe fatigue, cardiovascular issues, and potentially life-threatening adrenal crisis.

What is the typical age range for the onset of Type 1.5 diabetes?

Gradual onset typically occurs between ages 30 to 40, but can happen at younger or older ages.

What are some causes of nervous system dysfunction?

Vascular compromise, trauma, infection, inherited defects, congenital defects, degenerative disorders, tumors.

What is a cerebrovascular accident (CVA)?

A sudden disruption of blood flow to the brain, resulting in brain damage.

What are the two main causes of a cerebrovascular accident?

Blockage (cerebral thrombosis or embolism) and bleeding (cerebral hemorrhage).

What is a common symptom of a stroke?

Severe headache, aphasia, hemiparesis, numbness, hemiplegia, confusion, blurred vision, dizziness.

What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?

A temporary impairment of neurologic function due to inadequate blood flow.

What percentage of TIAs lead to a stroke?

40% of TIAs lead to stroke.

What is a depressed skull fracture?

A fracture where the bone is depressed below normal skull level due to trauma.

What are the symptoms of a depressed skull fracture?

Consciousness levels vary; 25% conscious, 25% unconscious for less than 1 hour, 50% unconscious for more than 1 hour.

What is an epidural hematoma?

Blood accumulation between the skull and dura mater due to trauma.

What are the symptoms of an epidural or subdural hematoma?

Sudden headache, dilated pupils, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, possible hemiparesis.

What is a cerebral concussion?

A mild traumatic brain injury characterized by short duration loss of brain function.

What are common symptoms of a cerebral concussion?

Headache, dizziness, nausea, blurred vision, irritability, personality changes.

What is paraplegia?

Loss of neural function below the waist.

What is quadriplegia?

Loss of neural function below the cervical region.

What are the causes of paraplegia?

Compression of vertebrae at T1 and below.

What are the symptoms of degenerative disc disease (DDD)?

Pain, numbness, burning along nerve paths, possible weakness or motor function loss.

What is a herniated disc?

Disruption of the annulus fibrosus and migration of the nucleus pulposus.

What is spinal stenosis?

Narrowing of the spinal canal causing pressure on the sciatic nerve.

What are the symptoms of spinal stenosis?

Sharp, radiating pain down the leg, numbness, difficulty sitting or standing.

What types of headaches are mentioned?

Tension headaches and vascular headaches.

What is a migraine?

Periodic, severe headaches with symptoms like bilateral throbbing pain and nausea.

What are common triggers for migraines?

Hormones, food, stress, sensory stimuli, sleep irregularities, and physical activity.

What is epilepsy?

A chronic disorder characterized by sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance, loss of consciousness, or convulsions due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

What are common causes of epilepsy?

Scar tissue on the cerebral cortex, tumors, cerebral edema, stroke, birth trauma, drug toxicity, and idiopathic factors.

What are the two classifications of seizures in epilepsy?

Partial seizures and generalized seizures.

What are symptoms of partial seizures?

Motor activity such as twitching, lip smacking, and picking at clothing, along with sensory auras and amnesia of the attack.

What are the types of generalized seizures?

Absence attacks (petit mal) and tonic-clonic attacks (grand mal).

What are tremors?

Involuntary, rhythmic muscle contractions that cause shaking in one or more parts of the body.

What are the two main types of tremors based on movement?

Resting tremor and action tremor.

What is essential tremor?

The most common movement disorder, often bilateral and possibly genetic, affecting both active and resting states.

What is a dystonic tremor?

A tremor associated with dystonia, a movement disorder characterized by abnormal brain activity causing overactive muscles.

What is a cerebellar tremor?

A tremor caused by damage to the cerebellum, often due to stroke, tumor, or chronic damage from alcoholism.

What is a psychogenic tremor?

A tremor that can appear in any form and increases with stress while decreasing when distracted, often linked to psychiatric disorders.

What is Parkinson's disease?

A neurodegenerative disorder affecting movement, characterized by resting tremor, weakness of resting muscles, and a shuffling gait.

What causes Parkinson's disease?

Decreased dopamine secretion from substantia nigra cells in the midbrain, with unclear reasons possibly including genetic anomalies or environmental toxins.

What are the symptoms of Huntington's disease?

Progressive atrophy of the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia, leading to muscle control loss, chorea, speech difficulties, and personality changes.

What is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)?

A progressive disease characterized by the atrophy of CNS motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and eventual respiratory failure.

What is multiple sclerosis (MS)?

A progressive demyelination of neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and cranial nerves, leading to various neurological symptoms.

What are the early lesions in multiple sclerosis?

Inflammatory responses resulting in loss of myelin in the white matter of the brain or spinal cord.

What are the types of multiple sclerosis?

Relapsing remitting MS (RRMS) and other variations in effects, severity, and progression.