Cognitive Psychology - Reasoning and Problem Solving

actions (operators)

in problem solving, the steps needed to move from a given state to a goal state

affirmation of the consequent (q)

in reasoning, a formal fallacy of declaring an antecedent true if the consequent is true

analogical reasoning

reasoning that helps an individual find solutions by transferring their knowledge from other problems

antecedent

in reasoning, the first part of a hypothetical proposition (“if” in “if/then”)

Bayes’ Rule

an equation estimating the probability of a hypothesis being true given the evidence

Bayesian Inference

estimation of the probability of a hypothesis being true given the evidence at hand and one’s knowledge of the world

causal launching

in an animated display, the perception that one moving stimulus causes a stationary one to move (or “launch”) when it collides with it

causal learning (causal induction)

learning about cause-effect relationships from observations

causal models

modeled networks of interconnected relationships that organize understanding of cause-effect relationships

causal reasoning

the ability to understand why something happens, to determine the cause of specific effects

cause-effect relationships

relationships in which one factor or set of factors causes an outcome (or effect); often depicted with an arrow leading from the cause to the effect

confirmation bias

the favoring of evidence that supports one’s beliefs, expectations, or hypotheses

consequent

the second part of a hypothetical proposition (“then” in “if/then”)

counterfactual reasoning

thinking in which an individual considers alternative outcomes; contrary to what has already occurred in reality

covariation

the likelihood of events occurring together

creative cognition

the cognitive processes that support creativity

deductive reasoning

thinking that involves moving general knowledge and principles to more specific knowledge and examples

delay discounting (temporal discounting)

the psychological tendency to diminish the value of future gains the longer one has to wait for them

denial of the antecedent (p)

in reasoning, a formal fallacy of declaring a consequent false if the antecedent is false

directionality

the principle that in causal relationships, causes precede effects

divergent thinking

the ability to generate a wide range of associations from a given starting point

extrinsic motivation

motivation based on external rewards such as money or status

flat associative hierarchies

networks of mental associations in which the less obvious ones are nearly as accessible as the obvious ones, may be linked with creativity

functional fixedness

the tendency for thinking to be boxed in by predefined uses and associations

heauristics

shortcuts or simple strategies to help solve problems and make decisions quickly

hill climbing

in problem solving, the phenomenon of selecting options that move the problem solver a little closer to the end state

idea evaluation

the process of judging the merit of an idea developed during idea generation; a component of creative cognition that involves focused attention and cognitive control

idea generation

a component of creative cognition that involves coming up with ideas; sometimes linked with being in an unfocused daydream-like state

ill-defined problem

a problem in which the given state, goal state, and operators are not well defined

illusory correlation

a faulty correlation made between variables that have to relation to each other

inductive reasoning

thinking that involves moving from specific knowledge and examples to more general knowledge and principles

insight

the experience of suddenly gaining a solution to a problem

intervention

in causal reasoning, implementing an action and observing its consequences to infer a causal relationship

intrinsic motivation

motivation based on an individual’s own passion, interest, and satisfaction

likelihood

the probability that the evidence will be observed when a hypothesis is true

means-end analysis

a problem-solving strategy that involves creating specific goals and subgoals in steps

modus poenens

in logical reasoning, the principle stating that when the antecedent holds true, the consequent can be treated as true

modus tollens

in logical reasoning, the principle stating that when the consequence is false, the antecedent is false

nonroutine problems

a problem that is unfamiliar and does not have an immediately known or apparent solution

oxytocin

a hormone important for pair bonding, maternal care, and sexual behavior

posterior probability

the probability of a hypothesis being true given the evidence

premise diversity

the principle that properties shared by diverse or dissimilar categories linked by a superordinate category are more likely to be generalized than properties shared by similar categories

premise monotonicity

the principle that the larger the number or premises that share a property, the more likely people will conclude that the property generalizes broadly

premise typicality

the principle that if premises are more typical or representative of a category, they will lead to stronger inductions

premise-conclusion similarity

the principle that the more similar the premise and conclusion categories of a logical statement, the stronger the inductive argument will be.

prior knowledge (causal mechanism)

background knowledge that influences the determination of causes for events

prior probability

the probability of a hypothesis being true even before any evidence is obtained

prisoner’s dilemma

a decision-making scenario in which participants (the prisoners) must decide whether to betray or cooperate with others without knowing what the others will do; the rewards or consequences depend on the prisoners’ combined decisions

problem definition and redefinition

a problem solving step whereby an individual develops an approach that renders a problem manageable

problem finding

creative cognitive processes that are geared toward finding new ways to frame questions and perceiving unrecognized needs and problems

problem identification

a problem-solving step whereby an individual notices a problem in need of a solution

property induction

the generalization of properties or feature from one exemplar of a category to another

random trial and error

the process of randomly selecting and applying different potential solutions until a problem is solved

reason (thinking)

the process of gaining new knowledge and understanding from existing information

remote associates

creative ideas that are remote from the original formulation of a problem

remote associates test

a cognitive test in which participants must think of what links three specific words

routine problem

a problem that is familiar and has a known solution

self-control

a crucial function of the self that involves initiating, sustaining, and inhibiting behavior

situated cognition

the idea that thinking is shaped by its physical and social context

social norms

standards of behavior based on widely shared beliefs about how individual group members should behave

syllogism

a logical system, devised by Aristotle, in which a conclusion is drawn from two given propositions (called “premises”)

temporal order

the arrangement of events over time

theory of mind

the ability to consider what someone else is thinking

Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

a cognitive test that scores participants’ performance is terms of fluency, originality, elaboration, abstractness, and openness of responses

transfer

to generalize a solution from one problem to another

trust

a social and emotional behavior that is indispensable in social interactions ranging from friendships to economic exchanges and politics

trust game

a game that studies what happens when platers interact anonymously, one as an investor and one as a trustee, the investor must decide on an amount of money to give or not to give the trustee, who must then decide how much to share with the investor

ultimatum game

a game in which two players have one opportunity to split a sum of money; the proposer suggests how the money should be divided, and the responder can either accept or reject the other

well-defined problem

a problem in which the given state, goal state, and operators are well specified