UNIT 2 PSYCH

Gestalt

In your brain, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Sensory experiences are organized according to certain basic laws or principles

Figure-Ground

You focus on one thing, and the rest becomes background.

Similarity

Things that look alike are grouped together.

Proximity

Things close together are seen as a group.

Closure

Your brain fills in gaps to complete a shape.

Continuity

You see smooth paths, not broken ones

Overlap

If an object is covering up or partially blocking another object, we assume it's closer. Alternatively, the object being blocked is assumed to be farther away

linear perspective

Whenever you have parallel lines, such as the rails on a railroad track, they will appear to get closer in the distance. Even though the lines never actually touch, the appearance of converging lines tells the brain that the lines are getting farther away

wavelength

distance between the peak of each wave of energy, indicates color, nanometers;
what color?

amplitude

wavelength height;
color brightness

saturation

richness of a color:
color intensity (vivid/dull)

pupil

small hole in the middle of the eye that allows light to enter

lens

a flexible structure in the eye that changes to refract and focus light on the retina

retina

multilayered tissue at the back of the eye responsible for visual transduction, or the conversion of the light stimuli into neural communication leading to vision

rods

Function: detect brightness

best in low light

does not detect color

location: retina edges

detail: low

cones

Function: detect color

best in bright light

detects red, green, blue

location: center (fovea)

detail: high

blind spot

receptor-less area at the back of the eye where the optic nerve exits; images focused on this part of the retina are not seen in the visual field

fovea

a depressed spot in the retina that occupies the center of the visual field

ganglion cells

primary cell type in the innermost cellular layer of the retina, responsible for carrying visual information from the eye to the brain

optic nerves

nerve that carries the neural messages from the eye to the brain to be processed

order of eye/brain structures

Pupil → Lens → Retina → Rods/Cones → Fovea → Ganglion Cells → Optic Nerve → Brain

Frequency/Wavelength

• “Pitch”

• How fast the sound wave cycles (high or low pitch).

• higher frequency = higher pitch.

Amplitude

• “Volume”

• The height or strength of the wave.

• higher amplitude = louder sound.

Saturation/Timbre

• “Tone Quality”

• The complexity or quality of the wave; made up of multiple frequencies.

• the unique tone or color of a sound that lets you tell a guitar from a piano, even if both play the same note.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea or nerve pathways from the inner ear to the brain.

Conductive hearing loss

Sound is not properly conducted through the outer or middle ear.

Selective attention

conscious focus on one stimulus

Selective inattention

surrounding stimuli that are ignored while attention is focused on one specific stimulus

Inattentional blindness

occurs when a person fails to perceive something in plain sight because their attention is focused on something else

Change blindness

failure to notice a change

Sensation

process where physical energy is converted into neural signals

Perception

process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets sensory information

sensory receptors

A cell in a sensory organ stimulated by energy, leading to sensation

Law of Specific Nerve Energies

Nature of perception is defined by the pathway over which the sensory information is carried (sensation’s origin is unimportant)

Absolute Threshold

smallest amount of energy needed to detect stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold

min. diff. between two stimuli needed to detect the difference at least 50 percent of the time

adaption

Occurs when we are exposed to an unchanging stimulus and eventually stops registering its existence.

Perceptual set

tendency for previous experiences and expectations to influence how situations or objects are perceived.

Top-down Processing

Perception that relies heavily on previous knowledge and experience

bottom-up processing

Method of perception that involves processing information from the raw date, or environmental stimuli up to the brain

2 Types of Sleep

NREM & REM

NREM

first and deepest stage of sleep; 3 stages; true restful sleep

REM

stage of sleep when dreaming occurs; lighter sleep

NREM1: Alert & Awake

13-30Hz

NREM2: Awake but relaxed

8-13Hz

NREM3: Tired

4-8Hz

REM: Dreaming

13-30Hz

Restoration Theory

Sleep helps the body and brain rest and repair; like when you sleep more while sick.

Evolutionary Theory

Sleep likely evolved to help us stay safe and survive, just like in animals.

Information Processing Theory

Sleep helps the brain process what we learned and get ready to learn more; without it, memory and learning get worse.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep or not feeling well-rested after sleeping

Apnea

Interruptions in breathing while asleep

Somnambulism

Occurs as a result of an irregular transition from deep sleep to either REM or a lighter stage of sleep

High Track

Our minds take deliberate actions we know we are doing (problem solving)

Low Track

our minds perform actions automatically (walking)

Nervous System

Body’s system responsible for controlling and commanding the body

motor neuron

carry information away from the CNS to operate muscles and glands

sensory neuron

carry information towards the CNS to operate sensory organs

interneuron

sends information between motor and sensory neurons

Cell Body (Soma)

contains the nucleus of the neuron and DNA along with other structures to support the neuron

Dendrites

act as a receiver for the neuron and take in neurotransmitters like Dopamine

myelin sheath

covering around the Axon which speeds up and strengthens signals

axon

the tail of the neuron and is responsible for transmitting the signal away from the soma

terminal buttons

responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons

dendrite receptors

live on the dendrites and actually interact with the neurotransmitters. There are specific dendrite receptors for different neurotransmitters.

neurotransmitter 

Chemical messengers of the brain

Acetylcholine

Excitatory & Inhibitory; arousal; attention & memory

Serotonin

Excitatory & Inhibitory; Arousal, sleep, mood, apetite

Endorphin

Inhibitory; Blocks pain, pleasure, regulates immune system

Dopamine

Excitatory ; Pleasure, learning, movement

GABA  

Inhibitory; Pleasure, inhibits movement

neuroplasticity

Brain’s ability to adapt and change by rewiring itself, strengthening or weakening through learning, experience, or injury, and recovering from damage.

Central Nervous System

the largest system in the human body and consists of the spinal cord and brain. 

Peripheral Nervous System

sits outside the CNS but connects to it because it carries information from the CNS to organs

Somatic Nervous System

apart of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary movements

Autonomic Nervous System

apart of peripheral nervous system; controls involuntary movements

Parasympathetic Nervous System

apart of autonomic nervous system; acts as a brake for organs; “rest & digest”

Sympathetic Nervous System

apart of autonomic nervous system; acts as an accelerator for organs; “fight or flight”

EEG scans

measures electrical impulses from neurons

MRI scans

measures brain structure and anatomy with magnetic waves and radio waves

fMRI scans

Brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

PET scans

Brain metabolism or chemical activity.

medulla

Responsible for involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat).

thalamus

Directs sensory information to its appropriate areas in the cerebral cortex

hippocampus

Vital for making long term memories

amygdala

Emotions

hypothalamus

regulates homeostasis (body temp., hunger, thirst, sleep,) and controls the pituitary gland

cerebellum 

Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, posture.

Frontal Lobe:

responsible for decision making & voluntary movement

Parietal Lobe:

sensory information, taste, temperature, and touch, which include pain

Temporal Lobe:

auditory processing, understanding language

Occipital Lobe:

visual processing, color, size, and movement of an object

Motor Cortex

apart of the frontal lobe, generate neural impulses

Sensory Cortex

apart of the parietal lobe, processes touch, pressure, temperature, pain

Auditory Cortex

Processes sound information such as volume, pitch, and location of sounds.

Visual Cortex

Processes visual information like shape, color, motion, and depth.

Broca’s Area

Responsible for speech production and the formation of spoken and written language.

Wernicke’s Area

Involved in language comprehension—understanding spoken and written language.

Prefrontal Lobe

Handles complex thinking, decision-making, impulse control, planning, and personality.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and enables communication between them.