Media studies a level

Representation theory

• Stuart hall

• focused on how culture is represented and constructed by media producers

• media representations can affect how people are viewed, leading to stereotypes and narrowed mindsets

Binary Opposition theory

• suggests that meaning in language and culture is constructed through juxtaposition of contrasting pairs of concepts

binary oppositions can be used to

• structure a narrative

• convey ideological meaning

Hesmondhalgh’s cultural industries theory

• media industries seek to maximise profit and minimise risk

• done through vertical and horizontal integration

• diversifies product through variety of platforms

• focuses on popular genres/stars and make more of same product

• controlled release schedule

Curran and Seaton: Power and Media Industries Theory

• most media industries are dominated by small number of giant conglomerates, results in similar products

• not a lot of variety

• media companies are all about profit and power

Hypodermic Needle Theory

• suggest audience passively consumes media

• leads to uniform and immediate effects on thoughts and behaviors

• outdated

end of audience theory

• Clay shirky

• suggests traditional media consumers are now active

• happened due to improving technology

Fandom theory

• henry jenkins

• participatory culture, fans shaping how media is produced, shaping narratives and influencing industries

Horizontal integration involves

a company acquiring or merging with

competitors or similar businesses at the same stage of the value chain to increase market share, eliminate competition, or expand its product offerings

Vertical integration is

a strategy where a company expands by acquiring businesses at different stages of its value chain, controlling more of the supply or production process

Semiology theory 

Roland Barthes – signifiers and signified

Objects are used as symbols, representing different meanings

Propp’s archetypes:

• Villain

• Helper - sidekick

• The donor - gives something to the hero

• Princess - damsel in distress

• Dispatcher - sends heroes off on a mission

• False hero - ends up betraying the hero

• The hero 

end of audience theory

Clay Shirky

suggests that traditional media consumers are now active participants

may have happened due to evolving/improving of technology

Challenges the notion of a passive audience.

- Fandom theory

Henry Jenkins

Theory of fandom/participatory culture, fans are shaping how media is produced.

Fans collaborate online, shaping narratives and influencing industries

Male Gaze Theory - Objectification/sexualisation

Laura Mulvey

States that gender power asymmetry is a controlling force in media

constructed for the pleasure of the male viewer

which is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideologies and discourses

Means that male viewers are the target audience

therefore their needs are met first and that this problem stems from an old fashioned, male-driven society

The Bechdel Test

Simple way to gauge the active presence of female characters in Hollywood films.

Have at least two named female characters

Who talk to eachother

About something besides a man

IF a text subverts male gaze a female may have

Agency (controlling the story)

Challenging the male perspective

May not conform to beauty standards

May pass the bechdel test

Clothing

Hair

Disability

how does laura mulvey male gaze affect male portrayal

portrayals of men as invulnerable, heroic, rational, and emotionally restrained, reinforcing traditional toxic masculinity

camera avoids lingering shots that might feminize men

female gaze

reframes male representation, showing men as emotionally complex or as objects of desire themselves

Uses and gratification theory

Why people watch media:

Escapism

Identity (tied to media consumed)

Relationships (allows people to have conversations and build relationships)

surveillance

—

contrasts with older theories that viewed audiences as passive recipients of media messages

Moonlight A24 budget

4 million dollars (according to impd)

Moonlight A24 worldwide box office

66.8 million dollars (according to IMPD)

the little mermaid budget

355.1 million USD

the little mermaid worldwide box office total

569 million USD

what makes a box office success

makes 2.5x their budget

disney’s acquisitons

Pixar, Marvel, Lucasfilm, and 20th Century Fox

united states cable tv big three

Fox News, CNN, and MSNB

fox news viewership

Averaged 3.28 million viewers in weekday prime

ahead of ABC (3.25 million viewers), CBS (3.1) in 2025 according to Forbes

factors that would influence production for a new company

• ownership and market concentration (curran and seaton Power and Media Industries Theory), conglomerates are big competitors to new companies

• Technological developments (multi-platform distribution, Digital access can globalise visibility)

• Cultural and representational factors (new companies often distinguish themselves through inclusive narratives)

• Regulation and ethical factors

• audience participation and digital fandoms

Todorov Theory

Five stages:

- Equilibrium: normal and  stable routine.

- Disruption: A force or an event disturbs the initial equilibrium, causing a conflict.

- Recognition: Characters realise a disruption has occurred and figures out how to restore balance.

- (Attempted) Repair: Climax of the narrative, where characters try to solve the problem/defeat the disruption and repair the damage.

- New Equilibrium (Reinstatement): Story reaches to an ending when the resolution is reached and stability is established. involves an improved version of the original as characters have been changed by the events

Sub Rosa

indie niche game

multiplayer FPS built around intense negotiations, double-crosses, and high-speed car chases

development of sub rosa

Developer: Cryptic Sea (Alex Austin)

Publisher: Devolver Digital

Distributor: Devolver Digital / Steam

launched on Steam Early Access in 2021, available in early access in 2012

Status: Indefinite "Early Access" (Effectively Abandoned)

why sub rosa built such a strong fandom

unique concept

social unpredictability. Every session could produce different outcomes because the real appeal came from how players interacted: trust, deception, negotiation, teamwork, and betrayal. That made the game highly memorable and very shareable. It also helped the game build a cult following through gameplay clips, YouTube videos, and community stories, because the audience were not just consuming content but actively creating it through play.

how did sub rosa grow

grew through word of mouth High-profile YouTubers and streamers (like Criken) highlighted the chaotic, unscripted interactions, turning a niche indie title into a cult classic.

downfall and abadonment of sub rosa

• Criticism centered on the steep learning curve, "clunky" physics, and a toxic community that often alienated new players

• Developer Alex Austin became known for lack of transparency, reportedly blocking users on social media and leaving the game without major updates for years.

• criticism matters because it shows how a strong concept alone is not enough to sustain a media product. In modern media industries, audiences increasingly expect ongoing support, updates, and communication. This links back to audience reception theory: different audiences decoded the game differently. Loyal fans may have read the game as a brilliant, unique social sandbox worth sticking with, while frustrated players may have interpreted the same lack of polish and communication as signs of neglect or failure.

sub rosa uses and gratification theory

Entertainment through unpredictable action and comedy

Social interaction because the game depends on communication and alliances

Personal identity because players perform roles like negotiator, driver, traitor, or enforcer

Escapism through immersion in a stylised criminal world

sub rosa curran and seaton theory

argue that media is controlled by a small number of companies driven by profit. Sub Rosa challenges this: it was published by Devolver Digital (an "indie" champion), yet it still suffered from a "logic of profit" where an unprofitable, niche game was left to rot rather than being finished

sub rosa hesmondalghs theory

suggests companies minimize risk to maximize profit. Devolver Digital minimized risk by keeping Sub Rosa in "Early Access" indefinitely. They didn't have to "finish" it to profit from existing sales, effectively treating the game as a low-cost experiment.

On one hand, indie production allows innovation and risk-taking.

On the other hand, because indie companies lack the economic stability of major corporations, they are more vulnerable if a game loses momentum, receives criticism, or cannot sustain updates.

That makes Sub Rosa a great example for arguing that smaller media producers can be creatively exciting but industrially fragile.

Evolution of NBD from subrosa

As Sub Rosa withered, fans migrated to Roblox to recreate the experience. No Big Deal (NBD) emerged as a "fan-based" version.

gaining traction in late 2024 and early 2025 (15.5M+ visits) It lowered the barrier to entry (being free on Roblox) while keeping the core mechanics of its predecessor

Jenkins: fans do not just consume media; they remake, reinterpret, and extend it.

Shirky: digital platforms allow communities to create their own alternatives rather than waiting for official institutions.

Curran and Seaton: this shows power shifting away from traditional producers toward more decentralised production spaces.

Hesmondhalgh: it also shows how digital culture reduces barriers to production, but this creates even more competition and instability.

Roblox itself is important here because it is a platform built around user-generated content. That makes it an ideal environment for fan-made or inspired versions of abandoned ideas. The platform’s structure supports community creativity, but it also means games can rise and fall very quickly depending on visibility, developer commitment, and platform changes.

sub rosa reception theory

A preferred reading sees Sub Rosa as a brilliant emergent social game about trust, capitalism, and chaos.

A negotiated reading accepts that it is unique and exciting but also frustrating and unstable.

An oppositional reading sees it as underdeveloped, badly supported, and inaccessible.

Through Uses and Gratifications, the fandom stayed because the game fulfilled social and emotional needs beyond simple gameplay. It was not just about winning; it was about interaction, tension, reputation, and stories.

sub rosa clay shirky(End of Audience)

argues that the internet has turned audiences into producers. The existence of No Big Deal proves that the "audience" no longer waits for a developer; they use "cognitive surplus" to build the tools they want.

sub rosa downloads

200k+ on steam

Technological convergence refers to the

coming together of different media platforms through digital technology, fundamentally transforming how audiences access, engage with, and interpret media

Synergy refers to the

cross-promotion and integration of media products across different platforms, allowing companies to maximise profit, audience reach, and brand identity.

technological convergence netflix

made media consumption instant, mobile, and personalised. Platforms such as Netflix allow audiences to access films and TV shows across devices (phones, laptops, smart TVs), eliminating the need for scheduled broadcasting.

Shirky’s theory, as audiences now choose what, when, and how they consume content. It also links to Uses and Gratifications, as audiences actively select media that fulfils their needs (entertainment, escapism, identity).

However, this increased choice is shaped by algorithmic recommendations, meaning consumption is guided rather than entirely free. Thus, convergence increases accessibility but also introduces new forms of invisible control.

why did the little mermaid flop

casting of Halle Bailey as Ariel, which sparked online backlash tied to the “go woke, go broke” argument.

links to Audience Reception Theory (Stuart Hall):

• Preferred reading: inclusive, modern retelling → positive representation

• Oppositional reading: “unfaithful” to original → rejection

• It also links to Representation Theory:

  • Disney is responding to changing social values (diversity, inclusion)

  • Representation is now part of corporate strategy, not just storytelling

Disney’s strategy of live-action remakes fits Hesmondhalgh’s Cultural Industries theory:

• minimise risk

• maximise profit through safe, familiar intellectual property

However, this backfired slightly. As

• Audiences are experiencing remake fatigue

• Comparisons to the original hurt reception

a strategy designed to reduce risk actually created creative stagnation lowering audience excitement

Even though Disney is a massive conglomerate, this case shows: big ownership does not equal success.

According to Curran and Seaton:

• Large companies dominate production

• But they may prioritise profit over creativity

In this case:

• Heavy CGI

• Safe storytelling

• Corporate branding may have impacted the success of the movie

A huge factor often missed:

Social media played a massive role:

• Viral debates on TikTok, Twitter, YouTube

• Memes and criticism spread quickly

• Review bombing and polarisation

This links to:

• Jenkins (participatory culture) → audiences shape discourse

• Shirky → everyone can publish opinions

Audiences now influence a film’s reputation before and during release, not just after.

technological convergence a24 civil war

integration of AI, social media, and digital marketing.

Even independent companies such as A24, traditionally associated with artistic authenticity, have begun adopting these technologies — demonstrating how convergence affects all levels of the industry.

marketing for Civil War, where A24 used AI-generated imagery in promotional posters

sparked backlash online

significant because A24’s brand identity is built on human creativity, originality, and auteur-driven filmmaking, so the use of AI was perceived by some audiences as contradicting these values.

While convergence allows for more efficient and visually striking promotional material, audience reactions demonstrate that consumption is no longer passiv

audiences actively critique and challenge production practices, aligning with Jenkins’ theory of participatory culture, where consumers become producers of meaning through online discourse

backlash against A24 highlights how audiences value authenticity, particularly from independent studios, and may reject technologies perceived as undermining artistic integrity

reflects Audience Reception Theory, as different audiences produced oppositional readings of the campaign, interpreting the use of AI as unethical or creatively lazy

illustrates Shirky’s argument that digital platforms empower audiences to publicly voice criticism, influencing a film’s reputation before release. Therefore, technological convergence is highly significant not only in enabling new forms of media production and distribution but also in transforming audiences into active, critical participants whose responses can shape the success or failure of media products.

how has technological convergence affected ways in which audiences consume media products.

• distribution of media (Disney+), opportunity to vertically integrate and expand (Hesmondalghs and Curran and Seaton)

• passive to active audiences (Clay shirky, henry jenkins) (NBD)

• Platforms such as Netflix, YouTube, and TikTok are controlled by major corporations, meaning audience choices are shaped by algorithms and data tracking.

• This links to Curran and Seaton, as power remains concentrated despite the appearance of choice. Similarly, Livingstone and Lunt highlight how regulation struggles to keep up with technological change.

• Therefore, while convergence expands access and participation, it also reinforces corporate control in new, less visible ways.

Moana 2 use of ai

physics related AI (Autodesk Maya) to create realistic waves and flow of hair

saves time and resources, makes quality higher to appeal to a masser audience

technological convergence worries about control

Although TikTok is owned by ByteDance, its partnership with companies like Oracle to manage US user data highlights how global tech corporations are increasingly involved in shaping how content is distributed and monetised

led to audience concerns regarding data privacy, political bias, and the ethical implications of platform ownership, especially in relation to geopolitical conflicts and perceived ideological alignments

more critical of how algorithms prioritise content, questioning whether visibility and monetisation are influenced by corporate or political interests

supports Curran and Seaton’s theory, as power remains concentrated within a small number of global technology companies despite the illusion of user choice

Livingstone and Lunt’s regulation theory is evident, as governments struggle to effectively regulate these transnational platforms. Therefore, while technological convergence enables participatory culture and widespread access, it also reinforces hidden structures of control, where audience consumption is shaped by opaque algorithms and corporate interests.

Daily TikTok uninstalls in the U.S. surged by nearly 150% in the five days following the announcement of the Oracle-led takeover

living stone and lunt regulation theory

the needs of a citizen are in conflict with the needs of the consumer, because protection can limit freedom. They noticed that regulating media to protect citizens from harmful content can limit freedom of expression.

how influential is fox news

one of the most influential right-wing media voices in the US since it first aired 1996

Survey conducted in 2025 showed that 69% of Republicans trust or regularly watch Fox News for political information

indication that Fox News is consumed by the majority of Republicans and as a result has a broad reach.

who is fox news controlled by

Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp conglomerate which also owns The Wall Street Journal and The Sun (concentrated media ownership structure)

Curran & Seaton’s Power and Media Industries theory, which argues that most media industries are dominated by a small number of conglomerates that prioritise profit and political influence over diversity of output

business model depends on maximising audience loyalty and engagement, not necessarily delivering balanced journalism

how does fox news conform to Hesmondhalgh’s cultural industries

principle of minimising risk and maximising profit by:

Reproducing formulaic, emotionally charged content (e.g. recurring coverage of immigration, patriotism, “culture-war” issues).

Using cross-platform promotion across cable, YouTube, and social media (vertical + horizontal integration).

exemplifies how ownership concentration encourages sensational, click-driven production strategies that prioritise profit and ideological reinforcement over journalistic diversity

how does fox news conform to representation theory?

constructs reality through selective framing—portraying events like protests, migration, or social justice movements using loaded language and imagery. This shapes audience ideology, influencing how groups are perceived.

BLM coverage was often criticised for emphasising:

riots over peaceful protest

disorder over structural inequality

threat over grievance

encoding protest through frames of danger and instability.

role of media/technology in modern days

media has a broad reach therefore it is easy for corporations/politicians with purpose to converge on a single anxiety-creating issue and exploiting/exaggerating it to make unwarranted levels of panic more common and likely to take place. Leads to people internalising stereotypes.

ideological framework for the interpretation of ethnic events. also act as a legitimation for prejudices and discrimination against minority groups.

Although the media might choose to magnify or reduce the importance of what is already being said in the public they are able to present it in a way that affects the way it is consumed and as a result understood and interpreted. (media corporations having framing power)

purposely giving one issue more coverage than other makes it more important than other issues at that time

assumption that how an issue is characterized in news reports can have an influence on how it is understood by the audience

BLM movement

stands against the historical systematic and intentional targeting of black people by an inherently white system.

What the movement has been most known for however is its unapologetic denunciation and whistle blowing of the disproportionate levels of police violence towards unarmed African American individuals

fox news coverage on the BLM movement

establish an ‘us’ versus ‘them’ dichotomy (binary opposition, meaning is created through contrast to simplify complex political issues into emotionally resonant binaries making the content easier to digest, share and monetise).

Rrend that was found amongst the articles is the villainization or even criminalization of BLM and the victimization of police officers.

“'An Attack on American Society': Critics Say Black Lives Matter Endangers Cops”

“'An Attack on American Society': Critics Say Black Lives Matter Endangers Cops”

‘Attack on American society”

catches the attention of the reader by stating in factual manner that ‘American society’ is being attacked or is under attack

‘attack’ is placed in the present tense, meaning that the attack on society is happening as we speak.

‘American society’, creates a sense of unity and identity, ‘we Americans are under attack’ meaning that those accused of doing the attacking are being set apart from ‘American society’ creating an ‘us’ versus ‘them’ scenario.

‘Endangers Cops’

fact that the Cops are the ones who are ‘endangered’ illustrate that they are the representatives of the ‘American society’ that Fox News was referring to

cops in danger means society is in danger.

Cops represent safety yet the are endangered, the notion of danger and safety are put into opposition of each other, good vs bad. If those in charge of keeping citizens safe are in danger, then who will keep the citizens safe? American society is thus under attack

‘Critics say’

not specifying who exactly said that

Cops were being endangered by BLM, they are not sharing the source of this information. This vagueness can be identified as anonymization.

anonymization is often used “to avoid specification and developing a detailed and coherent argument”

why is fox news framing of blm bad?

Fox news coverage framed protests primarily through:

looting

criminality

threat to public order

rather than police brutality.

This matters because repeated framing can influence public support for social movements, policing policy, and racial attitudes.

hypodermic theory fox news

Passive audiences injected with ideologies via repeated exposure—explaining how consistent narratives can shape public opinion (e.g. vaccine hesitancy, election distrust)

While a direct “hypodermic” model is simplistic, repeated exposure can still be understood through cultivation and framing effects, where long-term patterns of representation shape perceptions of social reality.

Hesmondhalgh’s theory fox news

Fox clips are optimised for YouTube, Instagram, and short-form media, allowing the brand to dominate multiple channels.

adapted by prioritising speed, emotional triggers, and shareability—traits

measurable through metrics like watch time and click-through rates.

clash royale origin

Supercell (which released Clash Royale) is majority owned by Tencent (global tech conglomerate which owns stakes in Riot Games and Epic Games)

Curran & Seaton’s Power and Media Industries theory a handful of conglomerates dominate, producing repetitive yet safe content to sustain profit and power rather than diversity.

how does clash royale repeatedly reduce risk and maximise profit (hesmondalgh’s cultural industries theory)

Re-skinning and re-balancing existing game mechanics (e.g. “Evolution” cards) rather than innovating entirely new systems.

Controlled scarcity: releasing time-limited “evolution” cards to create FOMO and drive microtransactions.

This cycle—introduce → paywall → nerf—maximises short-term revenue while maintaining long-term engagement. demonstrates Hesmondhalgh’s notion that media industries recycle proven formulas to reduce financial uncertainty, privileging monetisation over originality.

Supercell increasingly relied on a cycle of introducing powerful mechanics, monetising access to them, then rebalancing or weakening them after revenue had been extracted.

Clash Royale Barthes semiology theory

chests, crowns, and gold function as signifiers of achievement and status, naturalising consumerist ideology.

clash royale binary oppositions

victory/defeat, pay-to-win/free-to-play, mastery/luck—each reinforcing the idea that spending confers superiority

Comments on consumerism as a natural extension of competition, aligning in-game success with economic power and reflecting capitalist values embedded in modern media texts

downfall of clash royale

“Update for Losers” (2022)

Update was heavily criticised because it reduced rewards, slowed progression

was widely perceived as hurting ordinary players while benefiting monetisation. It became a turning point in audience trust. Supercell stopped listening to its community.

This matters because the decline wasn’t only caused by competition — it was linked to audience alienation.

Common criticisms:

pay-to-win

balance problems (level 16)

monetisation overwhelming skill

updates perceived as ignoring player feedback

downfall of clash royale and how it links to henry jenkins fandom theory

saw a significant, short-term revenue surge to over $70M in December 2025, driven partly by intense creator hype, including Jynxzi. However, revenue subsequently collapsed by roughly 50% from that peak after Jynxzi and multiple other content creators left Clash as they failed to listen to feedback, dropping from $68M in November down to $36M in January 2026 after updates.

Participatory culture can sustain a game — but when producers ignore participatory audiences, that same culture can turn oppositional.

concrete evidence that monetisation decisions damaged audience trust.

evaluation for downfall of clash royale

Despite criticism, Clash Royale remains significant because:

it still retains a player base (has around 21.7 million players in April 2nd 2026 in the app store alone)

Supercell does sometimes respond to backlash

the game continues to evolve

This prevents simplistic “the game died” arguments.

Rather than collapse, Clash Royale illustrates how over-monetisation can erode goodwill while a strong core product sustains longevity.

How does disney conform to hesmondhalgh’s cultural industries theory

• example of a large conglomerate, having grown to their size through horizontal and vertical integration.

• Horizontal integration involves a company acquiring/merging with competitors or similar businesses at the same stage of the production chain to increase market share, as seen by Disney acquiring Marvel and Pixar.

• Vertical integration is a strategy where a company expands by acquiring businesses at different stages of its value chain, controlling more of the supply or production process, like Disney owning film studios and distribution platforms such as Disney+.

• creates a synergy between sister companies, cutting costs and leading to Disney ultimately growing larger

• extending/favoring franchises and remaking classics.

• These remakes ensure that profit is more likely to be made as they have a large prior fan base willing to participate in the media Disney outputs, however despite their efforts in maximising profit, Disney has received backlash due to decline in quality, lack of creativity and forcing social agendas into their films.

example of synergy/conglomerate power within disney

Walt Disney Company is a diversified international family entertainment and media enterprise with three core segments: Disney Entertainment, ESPN, and Disney Experiences.

operates across film, TV, streaming, sports, parks, and merchandising rather than relying on one market alone owns the distribution channels, the marketing machine, and multiple platforms where its intellectual property can be monetised (Curran and Seaton and Hesmondhalgh: a small number of large companies dominate the market, and they minimise risk by exploiting proven franchises and spreading content across platforms)

ownership/power/concentration within disney — acquisition

In 2019 it acquired 21st Century Fox for $71.3 billion, bringing in major studios and international TV assets, and Disney explicitly said the deal would expand its direct-to-consumer reach and make it more global.

Conglomerates have a scale advantage a conglomerate has when it is competing for audience attention.

Higher barriers of entry for new production companies due to concentrated ownership

harder to get theatrical space, harder to fund marketing, harder to reach audiences at scale, and harder to compete with familiar brands that already have built-in trust.

Disney can decide which franchises get investment, which stories get worldwide distribution, and how those stories are monetised. That means Disney can turn one successful idea into many revenue streams. A film becomes a streaming title, then a merch line, then a park tie-in, then a sequel or spin-off.

A new company normally cannot do that, so it has far less room for failure. Large companies can spread risk; independents cannot.

Smaller companies have to adapt themselves to the market power of the giants.

how do smaller companieshave to adapt themselves to the market power of the giants.

making safer, more commercial, or more franchise-friendly content just to survive.

may also be pushed into co-productions, distribution deals, or platform partnerships, which reduces independence (concentrated ownership can actively shape creative decisions for smaller companies)

how is a24 adapting to survive in the film industry

A24’s earlier identity was built around director-led, personal, distinctive films rather than mass-market franchise cinema.

For example Moonlight 2016 was made on a 4 million dollar budget however it made over 66.8 million dollars and became the lowest-budget film in history to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. Stood in stark contrast to its primary competitor, La La Land, a major studio film with a budget of roughly $30 million that was widely expected to win. It broke several major barriers, making it an unconventional winner by traditional Hollywood standards: First LGBTQ+ Film to win Best Picture. First Best Picture winner with an all-Black cast. One of the lowest-grossing films to ever win the award.

More recently, A24 has clearly broadened its strategy. The company has been “deemphasizing” traditional auteur-driven dramas and “widening the aperture” into more commercial films, action projects, and bigger intellectual property.

Marty Supreme (2025) had a budget of 70 million dollars (the most expensive film in A24's history), making over $147 million globally as of early 2026. Had star power Timothée Chalamet and Gwyneth Paltrow. Helped A24 attract a wider audience and reduce risk by attaching the project to names people already know.

A24 is building a recognisable brand identity that can be sold across products, not just screens. Shop sells limited-edition goods, soundtracks, collectibles, memberships, and branded merchandise tied to its film (synergy) (Hesmondalgh's Cultural Industries Theory).

Commercial shifts occurred, concentrated ownership and market competition pushed independents to adapt. To keep growing, A24 has had to balance its prestige reputation with more bankable casting, wider appeal, IP, and branded monetisation.

Concentrated ownership gives conglomerates like Disney control over production, distribution and monetisation, which allows them to dominate audience attention and reduce risk through synergy and cross-platform exploitation. New media companies face much higher barriers because they lack the capital, reach and market power to compete on the same scale. As a result, independents such as A24 are often pressured to become more commercial or to rely on partnerships, proving that ownership concentration shapes not only market access but creative output

how did moonlight break conventions when it won the best academy award

Stood in stark contrast to its primary competitor, La La Land, a major studio film with a budget of roughly $30 million that was widely expected to win.

broke several major barriers, making it an unconventional winner by traditional Hollywood standards:

First LGBTQ+ Film to win Best Picture.

First Best Picture winner with an all-Black cast.

One of the lowest-grossing films to ever win the award.

marty supreme budget

70 million dollars (the most expensive film in A24's history),

how much did marty supreme make

making over $147 million globally as of early 2026. Had star power Timothée Chalamet and Gwyneth Paltrow.

benefits of star power

helps attract a wider audience and reduce risk by attaching the project to names people already know

“Go woke go broke” movement is where

rightwing Americans, where they boycotted businesses that supported progressive policies.

Backlash shows that audiences are active and can challenge a studio’s preferred reading, yet that does not mean they control the industry.

evaluation for the failure of the little mermaid

Disney still has the money, ownership, and distribution power to release the film globally and profit from it.

The film opened to $95.6 million domestically and grossed $569.6 million worldwide, so the backlash did not stop Disney from turning the property into a major commercial release.

Audience power versus institutional power. Audiences can influence discourse, review culture, and social media reaction, but Disney still controls the production, marketing, and release strategy. The institution is still stronger because it owns the platform and the intellectual property

disney’s reaction to the little mermaid flop

they have tried to cut their losses by removing politics or “wokeness” from their networks.

For example, In 2025 Disney fired Jimmy Kimmel over his opinion over the republican party, however instead of praise, what they received was a large amount of backlash and cancellations of their subscriptions from all over the world, which resulted in even more losses for the company.

This kind of consequence towards anyone against a specific political party has underlying themes of a dystopian society where freedom of speech is only a facade– reinforcing the problem with control of information from having media ownership by fewer and fewer companies.

Clay Shirky’s end of audience theory, where it is stated that media consumers are now active audiences also come into play as it is because of active audiences that Disney received backlash. 

how does a24 subvert these stereotypes of a media corporation /control of information

films are lower budget and character driven rather than action-filled CGI with direct star-power.

known to nurture new talent, often giving new directors and actors a chance– for example A24 produced Ari Aster’s debut films Hereditary and Midsommar.

Challenges Hesmondgah’s cultural industries theory as A24 maximises/increases their risk by giving new directors a chance, and in Ari Aster’s case, individuals with disabilities a chance

Lead to unconventional films of numerous genres that may not have been produced by larger studios due to its high perceived risk

A24’s approach in giving new directors and actors a chance allows opportunity for more accurate portrayal of different social groups (Stuart Hall’s representation theory), for example A24’s Moonlight, where stereotypes of drug dealers are challenged.

ari aster debut films

hereditary, midsommar

hereditary worldwide box office

grossed over 80 million dollars on a 10 million dollars budget

Midsommar

grossed around 50 million dollars on an estimated budget of. million dollars

how does the dominance of media giants makes it difficult for smaller media companies to compete

large congloemrates have financial and distributional advantages therefore limiting iversity and accurate representations of societal groups.

They have the power to decide which voices are silenced/amplified, therefore questions regarding flow of information and censorship are brought up

as seen by Disney's actions towards Jimmy Kimmel expressing his political opinion. Independent companies like A24 show that diversifying talent and focusing on telling a story rather than maximising profit is crucial for the media industry.

Technological convergence and Disney+, the little mermaid

Technological convergence has allowed media companies to promote their products across different platforms to reach multiple audience demographics and psychographics, has also changed the way audiences interact with media as they are now active, affecting how media itself is made .

same story can travel across cinema, streaming, social media, merchandise, and brand campaigns.

The Little Mermaid became one of the most viewed Disney movie premieres ever on Disney+, with 16 million views in its first five days streaming.

shows how theatrical release and streaming are not separate worlds anymore; they are connected parts of one business strategy.

Global vs local audiences, Disney

Disney is built for global audiences, but The Little Mermaid shows that global reach does not mean global agreement.

can release the same remake internationally and use one IP across many territories, but the meaning of that text changes depending on local culture, politics, and audience expectations

A concentrated ownership model gives companies like Disney enormous advantages: they can control production, distribution, marketing, and monetisation, so they are able to reduce risk and dominate audience attention

the Little Mermaid example shows that audiences are not passive anymore. They can push back, reshape online discourse, and create controversy. Even so, that audience power is limited because the institution still owns the IP, the platform, and the global release network.

iron lung budget

 roughly 3 million dollars

iron lung worldwide box office

Around 50 million dollars 

markiplier subscriber count

38.6 million subscribers

what is iron lung?

Based on the video game by David Szymanski and becomes a film made and released largely through Markiplier’s own audience power.

Markiplier would star in and direct it from his own script, and that it was a self-financed feature adapting Szymanski’s game. Production was self-funded, self-directed, self-starring, and eventually self-distributed.

why does Iron Lung matter for ownership, power, and concentration

Rare case where a new media creator challenges concentrated ownership.

Instead of needing a major studio to approve, fund, and distribute the film, Markiplier used his own platform and fanbase to push the project forward.

Film skipped the traditional studio system and whilst the initial projection called for 50-100 independent theaters. One week after trailer launch, bookings reached 600 theaters. By opening day, the film secured 4,164 screens worldwide.

Fans could request Iron Lung at their local theaters. The response—coordinated through Reddit communities, social media channels, and direct theater outreach—created demand signals that major exhibition chains could not ignore, despite the film lacking traditional distributor relationships. 

Concentrated ownership usually favours giants, but Iron Lung proves that digital creators can sometimes bypass traditional gatekeepers if they already own a large audience

Audience power versus institutional power Iron Lung

Shows audience power in action (Clay Shirky/Henry Jenkins)

Fans literally helped get the film onto screens, and Markiplier says the audience “broke down” a barrier to entry by realising they could influence real-world distribution.

Used his fanbase to contact theaters directly, which helped the movie reach more than 4,000 screens despite having no distributor. It also says the project turned one kind of popularity into a breakout hit in a different medium.

Participatory culture in a practical sense: fans are not just consuming, they are helping shape distribution outcomes. At the same time, it does not mean institutions are irrelevant, because the film still had to work with theatrical infrastructure. So the best judgement is that audience power is growing, but institutional power has not disappeared.

Technological convergence and distribution Iron Lung

Moves across games, YouTube, film, and theatrical exhibition. The original game exists on Steam as a digital indie product, while the adaptation became a film promoted through YouTube and released in cinemas.

Whole project depends on online infrastructure: game discovery, YouTube fandom, social media promotion, and theater demand. 

Iron Lung shows how convergence blurs the boundaries between amateur and professional media, because one creator can move from gaming content into film and use the same audience ecosystem to market both

Marketing and synergy Iron Lung

Markiplier’s YouTube identity, his horror-game audience, and the film all reinforce one another. He already had a built-in audience for indie horror, and that audience could be mobilised directly. Channel focus on indie horror games helped him build a huge subscriber base, and the film benefited from that existing relationship.

The “marketing budget” is not just ads; it is the creator’s own platform, fan community, teaser content, and word-of-mouth

project was driven by hidden clues and fan engagement, which fits the idea of interactive hype.

Global versus local audiences iron lung

Began as a niche game but reached a much wider, global audience through Markiplier’s platform. Film became a global hit and that fans helped it travel beyond its original niche.

film is still rooted in a very specific online subculture: YouTube horror fans, indie game fans, and creator-fandom audiences. But once it reaches theaters, it becomes part of the global mainstream market. That shows how a niche text can scale outward if the creator has enough platform power.

how does iron lung exhibit production challenges for new companies

Production was chaotic and lasted three years, and that Markiplier self-funded, directed, starred, and distributed the film himself.

even when a creator has an audience, they still have to deal with financing, production, post-production, and distribution themselves. It is not easy or normal. 

Proof of how hard the industry is for new entrants. It shows that access is possible, but only under unusual conditions.

how does iron lung challenge curran and seaton’s theory

challenges the idea that only giant institutions control media, because Markiplier used his own platform to reach audiences directly. But the fact that this is remarkable also shows how dominant traditional systems still are.