Sociology Midterm Notes

Bias

A systematic error or distortion in the way data is collected, analyzed, or interpreted, leading to inaccurate or misleading conclusions.

Cause and Effect

A relationship between two variables where one variable (the cause) leads to a change in another variable (the effect).

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables, where changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable, but not necessarily causal.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to a larger population or different contexts beyond the original study.

Hawthorne Effect

A phenomenon where participants in a study change their behavior due to the attention they receive from researchers, rather than the actual treatment or intervention.

Operational Definitions

Clear and concise definitions of variables or concepts used in a study, specifying how they will be measured or observed.

Population

The entire group of individuals or cases that a researcher is interested in studying or making inferences about.

Qualitative Research

A research approach that focuses on collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as text, images, or observations, to gain a deeper understanding of a phenomenon.

Quantitative Research

A research approach that focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data, using statistical methods to identify patterns and relationships.

Reliability

The consistency and dependability of a research instrument or method, ensuring that it produces similar results under similar conditions.

Sample

A subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population, used to make inferences about the population.

Validity

The extent to which a research instrument or method accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Culture

The shared values, beliefs, norms, and practices that characterize a group of people, influencing their behavior and interactions.

Cultural Diffusion

The process by which cultural elements, such as ideas, values, or practices, are transmitted and adopted from one culture to another.

Cultural Relativism

The perspective that cultural practices and beliefs should be understood and evaluated within the context of the culture itself, rather than being judged against external standards.

Cultural Shock

The feeling of disorientation and discomfort experienced by individuals when they encounter a culture that is significantly different from their own.

Cultural Universal

A cultural element or practice that is shared across multiple cultures, often reflecting a common human need or experience.

Cultural Lag

The delay between the time a cultural change occurs and the time it is recognized and accepted by the wider society.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

A sociological perspective that focuses on the ways in which individuals interact with each other through symbols, such as language and gestures, to create meaning and negotiate social relationships.

Conflict Theory

A sociological perspective that views society as being shaped by power struggles and conflicts between different groups, often resulting in social inequality and change.

Structural Functionalism Theory

A sociological perspective that views society as a complex system, where different components work together to maintain social order and stability.

Deviance

Behavior that violates social norms or expectations, often resulting in negative consequences or sanctions.

Socialization

The process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of their culture, often through interactions with family, peers, and institutions.