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What were bishops believed to be?
They were believed to be the successors of the original apostles, hence they held the authority to guide the faithful.
What responsibilities did the bishops adopt that were typically associated with secular (non-religious) leaders?
Aqueduct repair and food relief.
Which bishops were considered superior to all the other bishops?
Bishops of Rome. They asserted superiority over other bishops and claimed exclusive use of the term "pope".
Define "pope".
Father in Latin.
Define the Petrine Doctrine.
The Petrine Doctrine is the claim of the supremacy of the pope (also known as papal supremacy). It is based on an interpretation of Jesus Christ's words to Peter.
Who tended to disagree with the Petrine Doctrine?
The emperors in the east and certain bishops.
Why was Gregory the Great considered "great"?
Gregory the Great was "great" because unlike early popes who could only exert sporadic authority (having very little real power), Gregory forwarded the case for papal supremacy with his actions and his words.
What are some ways that Gregory the Great forwarded the case for papal supremacy?
He took over day-to-day administration of Rome, reorganizing estates and managing them in such a way as to generate extra revenue to feed the poor.
Negotiated a truce with the Lombards invading the Italian peninsula.
Exerted authority outside of Italy, writing letters to settle disputes as well as to offer financial assistance to distant churches.
Which languages were Gregory the Great's writings translated into?
They were translated from Latin to even Anglo-Saxon because of how great they were.
What did Gregory the Great's precedent of papal supremacy prepare the popes of the 8th century (and beyond) for?
With Gregory's precedent, popes of the 8th century and beyond were prepared to claim influence throughout western Christendom. They only fully wielded this authority in the 13th century, however.
Where was Benedict of Nursia from?
Benedict is of Italian origin.
What did Benedict and his twin sister Scholastica create?
Benedict created monasteries for men and his twin sister Scholastica founded monasteries for women.
Why did Benedict write a book of instruction (a Rule)?
Benedict wrote a book of instruction (a Rule) to guide monks and nuns in their communal lives, as he disapproved of Christians who lived independently (worrying that such individuals were prone to go astray in their path of Christianity).
What did Benedict think about the common practice of fasting and body modifications that marked the eastern holy men and women?
He eschewed (disapproved) the extreme fasts and bodily modifications that marked the eastern holy men and women. His Rule (book of instruction) required that people spend a balanced day divided into work, prayer, and moderate meals.
What did the requirement to work stated in Benedict's Rule (book of instruction) encourage monks and nuns to do?
The requirement to work stated in Benedict's Rule (book of instruction) encouraged monks and nuns to study and copy the precious manuscripts that preserved classical learning.
What did Benedict call his monastery?
A schoolhouse for the Lord.
What did Benedict insist that individuals ignore?
Benedict insisted that individuals ignore their own desires (extra food, different work, extra hardships) and live in strict obedience to the head monk/nun (abbots/abbesses) - they later became powerful figures in medieval life.
What did Benedict's insistence on obeying the head monk/nun (abbots/abbesses) create an effective mechanism for?
Benedict's insistence on obeying the head monk/nun (abbots/abbesses) created an effected mechanism for bringing independent religious people (independent Christians) into the Christian hierarchy.
Where was Patrick from?
Patrick is of Romano-British origin.
What was Patrick's origin story (as to how he became a bishop)?
Patrick was kidnapped and enslaved in Ireland. He then escaped to Britain and returned to Ireland as a bishop to convert the pagan Irish.
How did Patrick contribute to the spread of Christianity in Ireland?
Patrick established monasteries in Ireland and was thus considered the founder of Irish Christianity.
What did the strong monastic tradition established by Patrick and Irish Christianity subsequently create?
The strong Irish monastic tradition created monks who made great strides in preserving, learning, and stimulating ideals of asceticism (moderation) in the west. Furthermore, motivated by this, some Irish monks became missionaries to the pagan Anglo-Saxons in Britain.
Where is Gregory the Great from?
Because he used the term "pope", he is of Roman origin.
How was Gregory the Great like Patrick?
Like Patrick, he was interested in converting the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, and he was also technically a monk alongside being a priest.
How did Gregory the Great contribute to the monastic movement (that Benedict and Patrick were also a part of)?
Gregory sent monks to Britain in 597 to convert the native Anglo-Saxons to Christianity - a task very slowly but successfully achieved.
What happened when Patrick's monks from Ireland came into contact with Gregory's monks from Rome?
When Patrick's monks from Ireland came into contact with Gregory's monks from Rome, it became clear that the 2 strands of Christianity (Irish and Roman) had developed differing opinions on certain points.
What was one prominent difference between the Roman Christians and the Irish Christians?
Their opinions on the date of Easter, which differed.
Why did Europe end up being dominated by Roman Christianity instead of Irish Christianity?
This was because in 664, a council was called up by an Anglo-Saxon king in Whitby to resolve the debate between Roman and Irish Christians. The monks ended up agreeing on the primacy (importance) of the apostle Peter, hence the king decreed that Peter's heir in Rome (Gregory) should prevail.
What other roles did monasteries play beyond merely religious purposes?
Monasteries provided missionary services and were a safe haven for learning.
What did Charlemagne of the Franks represent?
He represented the high point in the combining of classical, Germanic, and Christian cultural elements into one.
What were the accomplishments of Charlemagne's kingdom during the Carolingian Renaissance (the period where all these accomplishments took place)?
Charlemagne won most of the 53 campaigns that he overtook during his reign.
He established himself as a leader and reformer of the church (he was pious).
He knew the importance of education and recognized the worth of scholars like Alcuin.
He also energetically sponsored learning by establishing schools and hiring scholars.
What did Charlemagne create with all of his and his kingdom's accomplishments during the Carolingian Renaissance?
He created an ordered society (stability) that was purchased by military victories.
What were the ways Charlemagne successfully administered his kingdom?
He put noblemen in charge of the various provinces he controlled and tried to use laws to bring order to his lands.
He required his noblemen to attend 2 annual assemblies in Constantinople.
He traveled frequently throughout his land to spread his influence/rule.
What did Charlemagne's noblemen do in the 2 annual assemblies they were required to attend in Constantinople?
In these assemblies, noblemen listened to the Roman emperor's latest decrees, but then went home and obeyed their ruler.
How did Charlemagne's approach of administering his kingdom differ from the method of the Anglo-Saxons?
His approach differed from the Anglo-Saxons because instead of having fixed sheriffs at his command, he sent traveling agents throughout his territory to examine conditions in his name and to redress certain abuses.
Describe the system of traveling agents (representatives) that Charlemagne put in place to help administer his kingdom.
The traveling agents (representatives) came in pairs - one bishop and one nobleman (who looked after the province) to represent both the secular and religious arms of his kingdom.
These traveling agents had high expectations from Charlemagne because he knew that his rule depended on the obedience of his subjects.
How did Charlemagne change the role/practice of the king?
Charlemagne moved the traditional Germanic legal practice of the king (Anglo-Saxon model) from simply recording the customs of the people to actually issuing legal commands. In a strikingly new departure from traditional German practice, he sought to maintain a personalized, centralized control over his unwieldy kingdom without appointing local administrators.
Why did Charlamegne force Christianity onto the Saxons?
After many years of conflict with the Saxons, Charlamegne concluded that the only way to force the Saxons to be permanent members of his kingdom (and thus, be peaceful) was to force Christianity onto them.
How did Charlamegne convert the Saxons into Christianity?
He forced the Saxon leader to convert to Christianity after crushing Saxon armies in 785.
He established priests and monks in the conquered Saxon lands.
He punished relapses into paganism and instances of other religious disobedience as treason.
Was Charlamegne's plan to force the Saxons into being Christians successful?
Yes - after 30 years of religious coercion (which was opposed by the scholar Alcuin), the now-Christian Saxons no longer rebelled. This demonstrated how the church could serve Charlamegne's political ends, and how it could benefit him and later Rome.
What happened as a result of Charlamegne growing more powerful in the west?
As Charlamegne grew more powerful in the west, him and the east began jockeying for position. Charlamegne tried (and failed) to arrange negotiations with the Empress Irene of Byzantium (Constantinople) by attempting to marry their children together, then by attempting to marry himself TO her.
What did the turmoil in Byzantium (as a result of the whole fiasco with Empress Irene and the marriages) contribute to?
The turmoil in Byzantium contributed to a pivotal incident in Charlamegne's reign and showed his penchant of joining church with state.
What was the pivotal incident in Charlamegne's reign that the turmoil in Byzantium contributed to?
On Christmas day of year 800, Charlamegne journeyed to Rome (eastwards) at the request of Pope Leo III (who had been attacked in the streets due to the turmoil). There, Charlamegne's armies restored the pope to power and calmed the violence in Rome and the rest of the East.
What reward was Charlamegne given after he restored the pope to power in Rome?
Charlamegne was given a crown by Pope Leo as he rose from prayer. The crowds then proclaimed Charlamegne as their emperor.
Why was the event of Charlamegne being crowned as emperor so important (and beneficial) to Rome?
This event was very important, for once again, a Roman emperor that was independent of Byzantium ruled in the west. This emperor, Charlamegne, reigned by the might of his armies and the blessing of God. This connection also reaffirmed the alliance between the papacy and the Frankish kings.
What did mosaics in Pope Leo's newly redecorated palace (after Charlamegne's arrival and aid) show?
Mosaics in Pope Leo's newly redecorated palace showed that Pope Leo considered Charlamegne equal. According to them, both Pope Leo and Charlamegne were united in the sense that they were guided by religious principles.
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