Unit 3: Development and Learning

developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

teratogens

(literally, "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

intersex

possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogen

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

spermarche [sper-MAR-key]

first ejaculation

menarche [meh-NAR-key]

the first menstrual period

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males and/or for females

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault

gender identity

one's sense of being male or female

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

sexuality

the complex range of desires, beliefs, and behaviors that are related to erotic physical contact and the cultural arena within which people debate about what kinds of physical desires and behaviors are right, appropriate, and natural

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura's theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)

was one of the most influential researchers to study human sexuality. He developed a scale to describe different forms of sexual attraction and behavior.

social script

a commonly understood pattern of interaction that serves as a model of behavior in familiar situations

Alice Eagly

found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children's thought processes.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schema

a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Investigated child development and how culture & interpersonal communication guide development (zone of proximal development, play research, etc.). Believed in the importance of social interaction on intellectual development.

scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

theory of mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

language

a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another

Noam Chomsky and language

Language development is something you were born with. Every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn any language

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

universal grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

the kind of verbal utterances in which words are left out, but the meaning is usually clear

aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

studied brain damaged patients (left frontal lobe) to link localization to ability

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Carl Wernicke (1848-1905)

German physician, identified Wernicke's area (associated with lesions in a region of posterior left temporal/parietal lobe)

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determinism

language determines the way we think

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Famous for describing concept of "liguistic determinism"

linguistic relativism

the worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak

Ecological Systems Theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Harry Harlow

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

Margaret Harlow

Did the Wire Mother Experiment with Harry Harlow, and studied the nature of affection

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

Mary Ainsworth's strange situation

an experimental method designed to measure the nature of attachment between mothers and babies

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis. Proposed five psychosocial stages build on Freud's theory, but added three adult stages

basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Diana Baumrind

researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive

identity

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

intimacy

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

associative learning

linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together

stimulus

A change in an organism's surroundings that causes the organism to react

respondent behavior

The response component of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli.

operant behavior

what an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

cognitive learning

form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

John B Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response