P2 - Sport Psychology

Paper/year 2

What is personality

The sum total of an individual's characteristics that make him unique (Hollander)

Trait theory vs SLT of personality

Trait theory - personality is innate, biological, stable, unchangeable, consistent and enduring. Used to predict person's behaviour  in a certain situation. Ignores learning so can’t explain personality changes

Can either be extrovert (sociable, talkative, outgoing, confident, like & suit team sports), or introverts (quiet, reserved, and shy, prefer to work on own, ideally suited to individual sports) 

SLT - personality is a sum of experiences, learnt through modelling from significant others. S/O enable socialisation - observe, identify, reinforce, copy

Interactionist theories of personality (x2). How would this help a coach (x3)

• Lewin: believed personality is due to STL and trait theory. B = f(P x E) personality and environment. Looks at which element is stronger depending on the situation. E.g. if environmental influence is stronger in this situation then they will change their personality.  B = f(P x E) personality and environment. Predicts how a player will react in a specific situation 

• Hollander: Personality depends on… innermost layer is psychological core (morals, beliefs, attitudes, stable traits). Middle layer is typical responses (usual/predictable). Outer layer is role related behaviours (circumstances/ situation/ environment/ how we act in particular situations)

This would help a coach: sub off player from situation if predict way would respond, expose players to diff env factors that affect perf to get used to it, encourage change behaviour like pos feedback so can adapt to any sporting sit

What is attitude and an attitude object?

A set of feelings or beliefs towards someone or something, also known as an attitude object. An attitude object is an object, person, thing or event you can have an attitude against (a strong belief towards). E.g. hatred towards Spurs

What is the triadic model?

Components of Attitude (CAB) - The Triadic Model 

Cognitive - knowledge and beliefs  

• This reflects our beliefs, knowledge, thoughts and ideas we have regarding an attitude object. E.g. based on info from our parents and PE lessons, we may think swimming is good for us in terms of health and safety

Affective - feelings and emotions

• Involves our emotional response or feelings towards the attitude object. E.g. in the past we may have liked swimming lessons with friends, may have led to positive feelings future participation

Behavioural - intended behaviour

• Involves our actual intended behaviour towards an attitude object, often based on our evaluation from the first two components. E.g. because of positive beliefs and experiences about swimming, we actually participate regularly

Formation of attitude

• Familiarity (frequent exposure)

• Socialisation (influence of significant others)

• Reinforcement 

• Conditioning (operant)

Attitude change

• Cognitive dissonance: new information given to performer to cause unease and motivate change. Creates conflict so that they change their attitude. Coach highlights the conflict, educates them (cognitive), creates a fun session (affective), praises correct behaviour (behavioural)

• Persuasive communication: effective communication to promote change, come from respected person (expert/higher status than you), quality of message must be clear and understood, timing is important 

What is arousal?

A general physiological and psychological activation, varying in intensity along a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement

It is an energised state, your drive to achieve well, readiness to perform and the intensity of motivation

What are the 4 theories of arousal?

• drive theory

• inverted u theory

• catastrophe theory

• the zone of optimal functioning

What is the drive theory?

Suggests that as arousal increases, so does the performance in a linear way. (All abt the dominant response)

P = f(D x H)

Performance is a function of drive multiplies by habit

Increased motivation causes increased drive, and the more drive we have the better the performance.

But increased drive doesn’t always mean better performance as high arousal = less information is processed and a dominant response happens (the response thought to be correct from schemas, go-to, most practiced).

Experts DM is usually correct → high performance, but beginners’ DM undeveloped so may choose wrong option → poor performance

Simple tasks not much thinking so at high arousal —→ high performance. Complex tasks mean lots of info to process but high arousal means ignoring important cues → poor performance

What is the inverted U theory?

As arousal increases, so does performance, but only up to an optimal point, where further increases in arousal cause performance to worsen (All abt diff optimal levels for diff ppl)

So both under and over-arousal can be equally bad for performance

Optimal arousal is usually medium levels, but vary for everyone depending on skill levels, personality and task

An experts optimum arousal would be higher as used to dealing with pressure and the DR correct so can produce high perf at high arousal. A beginner optimum level lower as uncomfortable with pressure

Extroverts → higher optimum level (RAS measures/controls adrenaline, extroverts have lower levels of adrenaline + can tolerate any increase in arousal). Introverts → naturally high levels of adrenaline so perform at low arousal

RAS = reticular activating system

Gross tasks —→ high optimum arousal levels as large muscle groups. Fine → Lower levels are needs precise control

Simple tasks not much thinking so at high opt arousal levels. Complex tasks mean hard to process lots of info at high arousal, so have lower opt levels

What is the catastrophe theory?

Performance increases with arousal up to a certain point, where there’s a dramatic decline in performance when arousal increases beyond that point

The cause of this dramatic decline is high levels of both somantic (physiological, muscle tension, inc HR) and cognitive (psychological, loss of concentration, worry about perf) anxieties

Person only recovers if innitial anxiety is low and there is time available. Mainly fail to regain control and starts to panic, increasing arousal even more, worsening performance even more

What is the zone of optimal functioning theory?

suggests each person has their own inverted u theory with different optimal levels of arousal causing different levels of performance.

there is a zone rather than a certain point

when in zone means best performance for them

some players find there zone at low arousal (athelete A) where there performance is best

zones found through mental practice, relaxation and positive self talk

you know your in the zone when

• things flow effortlessly

• feel in total control

• state of supreme confidence

peak flow - ultimate positive psychological state experienced when timing and performance appears to be perfect. happens when…

• clear goal

• attention on the right things

• positive attitude before/during perf / confidence

• control of arousal levels

affected by

• poor mental prep

• failure to reach opt arousal levels

• environmental influences e.g. crowd pressure

• injury/fatigue

What is the peak flow?

The ultimate positive psychological state

Happens when:

• Are presented with a level of challenge that matches their skill level

• Have a clear goal

• Have the correct attentional style

• Have a positive attitude before and during the performance

• Have control of their arousal levels

What is anxiety?

A negative emotional state associated with stress, feelings of worry, nerves and irrational thinking

Competitive trait or state anxiety

What is competitive trait anxiety?

Permanent and genetic

• A disposition to suffer from nervousness in most sporting situations

• Displayed before all competitions regardless of the importance of the event and the possibility of winning 

What is competitive state anxiety?

Temporary and specific

• Nervousness in response to a particular moment or specific situations-

• High pressure moments in performance when success is important

• This temporary response can affect the outcome unless nerves are controlled

What is cognitive anxiety?

The psychological response

• Irrational thinking

• Worry

• Negative thoughts

• Self doubt

• Questioning own ability

What is somatic anxiety?

The physiological response

• Increase heart rate

• Sweating 

• Muscular Tension 

• Nausea

relationship between cognitive and somatic anxiety

• Increases in somatic anxiety can improve performance up to a point.

• The greater the cognitive anxiety, the worse performance gets

• Somatic increases before but decreases during and after. 

• Cognitive levels are higher well in advance,  as we prepare for an event

What are the 3 measures of anxiety?

Questionnaires, observations, and physiological measures

Questionnaire definition, example, adv/disadv, how its used by coach

A set of questions to measure or assess

Asks questions about emotions & emotional responses to sporting situation

 

Example:

Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)

Advantages:

• Quick

• Cheap

• Efficient - large numbers of players can be assessed quickly, once assessed results can be compared easily

Disadvantages:

• Results can be invalid due to:

  • May not understand the questions

  • Answer based on mood 

  • Questions could be ‘leading’

  • Responses can be influenced by time or results

Used by coach by:

Coach can see how his players might behave in competitive situations and be able to plan accordingly

Although some somatic anxiety is a good thing, the coach should manage both somatic and cognitive to improve results

Observation definition, adv/disadv, how its used by coach

Gaining a measure of anxiety simply by watching the performer

Advantages

• True to life

• Simple

• Realistic

Disadvantages

• Based on the opinion of the observer, therefore results are subjective

• Time consuming

• Behaviour can change if they know they are being watched (results become invalid)

• May need more than one observer

Used by a coach by:

Watching a player either in training or during a game can be a valuable measure of his / her anxiety

How they cope with situational pressure

Physiological measures definition, example, adv/disadv, how its used by coach

Anxiety is measured by using a physical response from the body

E.g. heart rates, sweat levels, rate of respiration.

Adv

• Factual - comparisons can be easily made

• Can be used in training or real games

• Advances in technology make it more reliable and efficient

Disadv

• Training is often required so that coaches can learn how to use devices

• Wearing of the device could be problematic

• Awareness of the monitoring could cause additional stress and give false readings

Used by coach:

Could give the coach a different perspective/understanding  more physiological responses to anxiety

What is aggression and assertion?

Aggression - behaviour that involves intent to harm or cause injury to another individual, often outside the rules of the game.

• Uncontrolled

• Intent to harm

• Outside the rules

• Reactive 

• Deliberate and hostile

Assertion - forceful or committed play within the rules or laws of the game

• Controlled

• No intent to harm

• Generally within the rules

• Well motivated

• Goal directed

E.g. going into a rugby tackle forcefully but with no intent to harm

However, there is a grey area between the two because a player can have an intent to harm or put a player off, but still play within the rules. E.g. make a player scared for the next tackle

What is the instinct theory?

Aggression is spontaneous and innate - we are all born with aggressive traits

• Aggressive instincts will surface with enough provocation

• Suggests that once the aggressive act has been undertaken, the aggressor may calm down and experience an emotion called catharsis

Catharsis - ‘letting off steam’, cleansing the emotions. Sport can be seen as a release/an outlet for aggression

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

Aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the performer becomes frustrated

Drive to goal/ need to win —→ obstacle to goal —→ frustration —→ aggression, which can then lead to either success and catharsis, or punishment which then leads back to frustration and the cycle could continue

• This frustration can lead to aggression (not all frustration leads to aggression, not all aggression is the result of frustration)
  

• Suggests like instinct that aggression is innate

Causes of aggression

• Losing

• Poor play

• Disagreement with the ref

• Hostile crowd

• Pressure to win

• High pressure game

• Being fouled

What is the aggressive cue hypothesis?

A nurtured approach to aggression, it is learned

Frustration leads to aggressive tendencies caused by a learned trigger.

Increased frustration —> increases arousal levels and a drive towards aggressive responses (only occurs if cues are present)

Learned trigger/cue —> frustration —> arousal increase —> aggression

Aggression can be learnt from S/Os. E.g. a coach could encourage foul play by saying you have to hold a certain area with all your power

Social learning theory for aggression (and the 4 processes)

Aggression is seen as a learned response. Learning by associating with others and copying behaviour

Observe, identify, reinforce, copy

factors that increase the likelihood of aggressive behaviours being learned and copied

if the model is of high status, if they have similar characteristics (age/gender) - the behaviour is more likely to be reinforced

Methods of reducing aggression

• punish aggression with fines/ sending them off

• remove them from the situation by subbing them off

• talk to players to calm them down

• use mental rehearsal or relaxation to lower arousal

• point out non-aggressive role models

• walk away from the situation

What is motivation, both types, and both types rewards?

Motivation - the drive to succeed. High constant effort at best level. The will or desire to achieve

Intrinsic motivation - motivation from within. Pride and satisfaction, fun/enjoyment, challenge, sense of self worth or accomplishment

Extrinsic motivation - from an outside source

Tangible rewards - physical rewards. Trophy, money, certificate, prizes

Intangible rewards - non physical rewards. Praise, fame, press/ media

Why is intrinsic better than extrinsic?

• Intrinsic is stronger and longer lasting

• Encourages a love for the sport; pride and satisfaction

• Extrinsic may lead to loss of motivation /love for the game if used excessively

• Become reliant /dependant on it - becomes the ‘norm’

Coach tactics for motivation

• Make activity fun

• Use role models

• Highlight health and fitness benefits

• Use variable practice

• Generate intrinsic motivation (set goals)

Achievement motivation? + equation

The degree to which a player accepts the prospect of challenge in sport. Achievement motivation is an individual’s motivation to strive for success. It is the extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition, or avoid competitive situations

.

McClelland and Atkinson 1969 see achievement motivation as a personality trait. They suggested we all have two underlying motives when placed into situations: The need to achieve (Nach). The need to avoid failure (Naf)

.

Our individual decision to participate in sport is determined by the relative strength of our desire to succeed and desire to avoid failure.

=

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION = 

DESIRE TO SUCCEED – FEAR OF FAILURE

NACH characteristics

• Accept challenges

• Welcome competition

• Confident

• Take risks

• Task persistent 

• Welcome feedback and evaluation

• Not afraid to fail

• Attribute success internally

NAF characteristics

• Take the easy option

• Avoid responsibility

• Avoid competition

• Give up easily

• Dislike feedback

• Lack confidence

• Avoid situations with a 50-50 chance

• Attribute performance to external factors

How can we encourage NACH behaviours

1. Positive experiences/give success

2. Reinforcement/positive feedback/praise

3. Attribute success internally

4. Improving confidence

5. Encourage risk taking

6. Goal setting (realistic and achievable)

Social facilitation

The positive effect of the presence of others on performance

Social inhibition

The negative effect of the presence of others on performance

According to Zajonc, what are the types of ‘others’?

• The audience,

• The co-actors (doing same thing but not in comp)

• The competitors

• Social reinforcers (coach/parent)

What is Zajonc’s model

• Zajonc suggested that when others are present, there is either passive or interactive ‘others’.

• The passive ‘others’ are the audience and co-actors as don’t have direct influence on event, but still increase arousal and drive. The interactive ‘others’ are competitors and social reinforcers.

• Increased arousal would benefit experts, gross, simple, NACH because the dominant response is likely to be accurate, so facilitation. Novices, fine, NAF performers would be inhibited by increased arousal and less accurate dominant response, so inhibition

• Crowd could give home advantage and noise, greater expectations, and more evaluation apprehension

How to prevent social inhibition

• Perform in front of a crowd in training to become more normalised with it, so more comfortable when event

• Attribute successes internally and failures externally

• Mental rehearsal

• Avoid social comparison with others

• Goal setting

• Ensure skills are over-learned so the correct dominant response comes out  

Evaluation apprehension

The perceived fear of being judged. If the audience is expert or knowledgeable, S/Os supportive or abusive will affect this. If you have naturally high levels of trait anxiety or low self efficacy/confidence levels, this will be higher

How to prevent social inhibition

• Perform in front of a crowd in training to become more normalised with it, so more comfortable when event

• Attribute successes internally and failures externally

• Mental rehearsal

• Avoid social comparison with others

• Goal setting

• Ensure skills are over-learned so the correct dominant response comes out  

4 stages of team formation

• Form: team comes together towards a common goal 

• Storm: reality sets in, conflict to fight for a place

• Norm: resolve conflicts, find ways to work together, cohesion develops 

• Perform: team reaches optimal performance, ease to relationships, people add value

A team should have a collective identity (kit), which gives a sense of belonging. A shared goal for max. Motivation. Communication. Interaction to link with other players

Advantages of home advantage

• increased confidence due to noise from crowd

• no fatigue from travelling far

• home teams tend to play more attacking so higher chance of scoring

• familiarity of surroundings helps players feel more comfortable leading ton optimal arousal

• crowd hostility causes oppositions to become anxious

Disadvantages of home advantage

• more pressure on home team as more likely to win at home, so if lose and underdogs win its more embarrassing (more pressure to win)

• expectation to win from crowd causes fear of failure

• away teams performance may lift as under less pressure

Define cohesion, and task/social cohesion

Cohesion in sport - the tendency for individuals to work together to achieve their goals 

Task cohesion - achievement and success driven, working to reach a (same) target, understanding your own role, others’ role, and coordinating together. Happens first as come together to meet a certain goal. Most important asif we have different goals not gonna reach them

Social cohesion - integration and interaction with other group members. The ability of the group to relate well to each other / get along socially

What is the relationship between task cohesion, social cohesion and success?

• Some people argue that being cohesive brings success, others argue that success produces cohesion

• Without doubt the most successful teams show both task and social cohesion 

• Social cohesion helps with interaction, but is not enough to produce results on its own

• Task cohesion is stronger and is enough to produce success without social cohesion — some players may not socialise together but they will still work hard for the team cause

Steiner’s Model of group productivity

Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes 

(end result)(best they COULD play)(things that could go wrong)    

Faulty processes include coordination problems (tactics, strategies, communication, interaction) and motivational problems (social loafing - individual loss of motivation due to lack of performance identification, ringelmann effect - When group performance decreases with group size)

Benefits of goal setting

• Improved motivation (target to aim for, drive, task persistent, pride and satisfaction when reached)

• Improved confidence (technique improves, results improve, success builds confidence , reduced anxiety)

• Sustained effort (as goals get closer, work harder to achieve them, greater focus, concentration)

Define outcome/product goal, and task orientated goal (performance goal and process goal)

Outcome/product goal - a goal set against the performance of others and based on a result e.g. placing in the top 3. (Longer term)

Task oriented goals 

• Performance goals: based on personal standards, getting better at your own performance rather than comparing to others e.g. getting a PB

• Process goal: based on improving technique (shorter term)

What is the SMARTER principle?

• Specific (clear, precise, use data, relevant)

• Measurable

• Achievable (able to reach goal, controlled amount of effort, motivation and self satisfaction)

• Realistic (within reach to promote motivation and sustain effort, not impossible or cause anxiety) 

• Time bound (clear deadline)

• Evaluate (evaluate how and when the goal was achieved, consider methods that worked well  and that didn’t, so that only the best ways are used in the future

• Redo (if the goal has not been achieved, or if progress is slow or after evaluation the performer thinks that something could have been done better - do it again. Target can be adjusted to ensure success)

Define confidence, trait/state confidence, competitive orientation, objective sporting situation and subjective outcomes

Confidence - a belief in the ability to master a task

Trait confidence - a belief in the ability the do well in a range of sports 

State confidence - a belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment 

Competitive orientation - the degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations

Objective sporting situation - the performance takes into account the situation in which the task is being undertaken

Subjective outcomes - how a player perceives or rates their performance

What is Vealey’s model of self confidence?

States that level trait confidence, the  competitive orientation of the player, lead to a level of state confidence. This all has an effect on performance. And this leads to subjective outcomes of the performance such as how satisfied the player is, how successful it was, or the perceived causes of the outcome.

E.g. the sporting situation is a penalty in football, if our competitive orientation and trait confidence is high, we will likely have high state confidence, then performance is more likely to be successful and we are more likely to be happier with the result

What is Bandura’s self efficacy theory?

Self efficacy - a belief in the ability to master a specific sporting situation. The England football team’s failure to succeed in many penalty shoot-outs could exemplify how the players may have high self-efficacy in most situations during the match but low self-efficacy in other situations (e.g. taking a penalty in a penalty shootout).

• Performance accomplishments (what you have already achieves, remind of past experiences)

• Vicarious experience (seeing others do the task well - similar ability)

• Verbal persuasion (praise, pos feedback, reinforcement and encouragement from others)

• Emotional arousal (perception of the effects of anxiety. Controlling over-arousal)

• When there is good skill (an athlete’s ability) and high motivation, the main predictor for success is self-efficacy

• Self-efficacy alone does not make a person successful.

• Self-efficacy levels can influence the athlete’s effort and choice of activity. Athletes with higher self-efficacy are likely to persevere under difficult conditions.

• Self-efficacy is task specific but can transfer to similar tasks or situations.

• Self-efficacy is related to goal setting. Athletes with high self-efficacy tend to set more challenging goals. This is because SE increases positive attitudes, motivation, reduces fear of failure/anxiety and helps reach optimal arousal levels

How to use Bandura's theory to improve confidence

What is a leader and its characteristics

Someone who has influence in helping others to achieve their goals 

Leaders can be prescribed (from outside and brought into the organisation) or emergent (from within the organisation already)

Characteristics (COMICEE)

• Communicator

• Organised

• Motivator 

• Inspirational

• Charisma 

• Empathy

• Experiences

Styles of leadership

• Autocratic and task orientated. Leader makes all decisions and dictated instructions to the group. They take a task-oriented style in which focus is on getting results and reaching targets. It’s for when the team is less experienced / large groups / if dangerous because they need to say it how it is, direct in approach. Heavy reliance on coaches and they need to stay with the group as they tend to switch off if their coach isn’t there. E.g. by a coach who has made a specific plan to win the game, or when going rock climbing need autocratic leader to ensure safety with harnesses

• Democratic and person oriented style. This is when decisions are made by group consultation, the coach is more sympathetic and asks opinions of group when the team helps come to decisions together. Seek opinions from a group, values ideas from others, concerned with individual wellbeing as well as success. Good relationships, experiences, good work ethic even if coach leaves, level of respect for each other and coach. E.g. coach listens to seniors players after watching videos of opponents and makes a plan involving this in the expectation of a win  

• The ‘laissez-faire’ style. The leader does very little and leaves the group to it. Danger that less motivated players will stop working if left alone. Provides little support or input. Used when time available, experienced performers, more motivated, no danger. E.g. coach simply tells players what they want from then in training and then does other business

Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership

He suggested that the autocratic/task orientated style is best used in two opposite situations. When everything is good AND when everything is bad. (Most favourable and least favourable). In the middle, he thinks a person orientated style is best. 

A favourable situation is 

• Leader has respect / there’s harmony between leader and the group

• Coach supports group well

• High ability group / high motivation

• The task is clear to them 

A least favourable situation is

• Hostility between group members

• Little respect for the leader / weak leader

• Low ability group

• Low motivation 

• Task unclear

Moderately favourable situation 

• Need or preference for consultation within the group 

• Moderate motivation 

• Limited support 

• Reasonable group ability

Chelladurai’s multidimensional model of leadership

🧠 Leadership Effectiveness (Interactionist Theory)

• Leadership success depends on 3 key factors:

  1. The Situation (required behaviour)

  2. The Leader (actual behaviour)

  3. The Group (preferred behaviour)

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📍 1. The Situation (What’s needed)

• Depends on:

  • Time available → short time = direct orders

  • Task type → complex task = more explanation

  • Group size

  • Danger level

• These influence the style the leader should use

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👤 2. The Leader (What the coach does)

• Influenced by:

  • Personality – strict vs relaxed

  • Experience – experienced leaders can adapt better

  • Preferences – some prefer being autocratic, others collaborative

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🧑‍🤝‍🧑 3. The Group (What the team wants)

• Novices → prefer clear, direct instructions

• Experienced athletes → prefer autonomy and discussion

• Young athletes → open to new ideas and learning

• Older athletes → value respect and input

• Gender:

  • Women → prefer empathy

  • Men → may respond to authority

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✅ Best leadership happens when the leader balances:

• What the situation needs

• What the leader is like

• What the group prefers

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🏊‍♂ Example: Elite Swimming Team

• Situation: Small, experienced group → flexible approach

• Leader: Adjusts style and includes team in decisions

• Group: Prefers autonomy → feels respected and satisfied

Define stress, eustress, stressor, cognitive stress, somatic stress

Stress - a negative response of the body to a threat causing anxiety. Can cause cognitive and somatic effects

Eustress - a positive response of the body to a threat 

Stressor - the cause of stress in sport. E.g. an injury, playing an important game 

Cognitive stress - the psychological effects of stress e.g. negative thoughts or feelings, loss of concentration

Somatic stress - heart rate, nausea, sweating, muscle tension

Stress management techniques

How to manage cognitive stress (VAMPIT)

• Visualisation

• Attentional control / cue utilisation 

• Mental rehearsal 

• Positive self talk 

• Imagery 

• Thought stopping

How to manage somatic stress (prevent beef, be calm)

• Progressive muscle relaxation

• Biofeedback

• Breathing control

• Centering

Visualisation

Uses mental image of the skill, of it perfected while performing it successfully in training → the image is then ‘locked in’ and relived when the skill is performed for real

.

External is when a player has an image that concentrates on the environment, almost as if watching themself on TV.

Internal imagery looks at the emotions and feelings involved in the skill, such as the sense of kinesthesis used to develop a feel of the movement or satisfaction gained from completing the successful action

positive self talk

Performer replaces negative thoughts with positive ones

For example, a squash player who is struggling to retrieve an opponent’s shot may think: “I can get to the ball if I just move a little sooner and get on my toes”.

It can help overcome a bad habit. Self talk can be used in other ways. It can help the player to focus on a tactic or instruction from the coach and it can be used to overcome a weakness.

For example, the badminton player who has missed a couple of overhead shots might think about getting their feet in the right position

Attentional control and cue utilisation (theory)

Attentional control

• 🎯 Attentional control: Focus on important cues; ignore distractions. Linked to arousal ⚡️.

• ⚠ Stress ↑ → info intake ↓ = attentional narrowing 🔍.

• 👀 Types:

  • Broad (team sports) 👥

  • Narrow (individual sports) 🎯

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Cue utilisation -

• How well an athlete notices and reacts to important cues

• Low stress = notice too many irrelevant many cues

• High stress = focus too narrowly → miss important cues

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Niddefer - use of selective attention

• Athletes choose 4 attention styles:

  1. Broad (many cues) 👀

  2. Narrow (few cues) 🎯

  3. External (environment) 🌍

  4. Internal (self) 🤔

• 🚀 Using the right style lowers stress, improves performance 💪.
  Example: Footballer spots teammate (broad external) then passes (narrow external) ⚽

Imagery

Recreate a successful image of the action from a past performance when the skill was executed successfully and the player can recall the feel of the actual movements in the mind.

Also the emotions associated with the successful action

E.g. a netballer who scored a winner would imagine the satisfaction associated with that feeling to build confidence in the current situation.

Used to avoid stressful situations by imaging a calm place, perhaps a favourite holiday as a mental escape from the stress

Thought stopping

When negative or irrational thoughts occur → player uses a learned action / trigger to remove them

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This can be a simple movement or rehearsed action that is linked to a negative thought to redirect attention to the task in hand.

E.g. Ronaldo takes a step back and drags his feet back before taking a free kick or penalty, to redirect attention to the pitch. The prior learning of the cueing action is vital to the success of the technique

Mental rehearsal

Going over the movements of a task in the mind before the action takes place

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Mental rehearsal is useful for athletes about to perform a sequence of skills such as a routine on the trampoline.

If the required movements are rehearsed in order and in a spatial sequence, then the performer is less likely to forget the order and then stress is reduced.

Best done in calm situations prior to the event

Progressive muscle relaxation

A physical technique used to relax muscles before an event. Uses instructions.

The performer alternates between states of tension and relaxation in muscles (clench/unclench). The groups of muscles that are tensed, held, and then relaxed are worked progressively from the periphery of the body to the core.

• Helps relieve stress by reducing muscle tension, which can cause pain and discomfort

• Tense muscles signal stress to the body, creating a cycle of tension and anxiety. By relaxing the muscles, this cycle is broken, leading to reduced stress.

Biofeedback

Uses a measuring device to help the athlete recognise the physical changes that will happen under stress.

Such measures would include measures of HR, or electromyography that measures muscular tension with electrodes taped to skin.

The idea is that the athlete learns to recognise when such  physical symptoms are happening and can eventually do so without the use of a measuring device.

As soon as the signs are recognised, the performer can then use techniques to calm down and reduce stress

Centering

A form of breathing control when at certain times, the performer can learn to relax the shoulders and chest while concentrating on the slow movement of the abdominal muscles when taking deep controlled breaths. The use of slow controlled breathing diverts the attention away from the stressful situation / negative thoughts. It relaxes the upper body. It reduces somatic symptoms

Attribution Theory 

The reasons given for winning or losing/ for success or failure. Important because it affects motivation

Weiner’s Model

Locus of causality: factors that are within the individual or not (level of control we have). Internal is our ability, effort, skill). External is coaching, other teams’ ability

Locus of stability: how enduring or permanent a factor is. E.g. luck 

		Locus of causality
		Internal	External
Locus of	Stable	Ability (capacity to cope with task)	Task difficulty
stability	Unstable	Effort (amount of practice/preparation)	Luck (beyond control)

When should we attribute internally/ externally?

When should we attribute internally?

• Success

• Others make mistakes/fail

When should we attribute externally?

• When others succeed

• When we fail, blame others

• This is our motivation stays high

How can a coach use attributions to maintain high motivation following a defeat?

• Never attribute failure to internally stable factors

• Attribute loss of internal unstable factors (effort)

• Attribute loss to external stable factors (other team world champs)

• Attribute loss to external unstable factors (luck)

Self serving bias

Correct use of attribution to promote confidence. Promotes task persistence, motivation, and encourages future efforts

Learned helplessness

Belief that failure is inevitable. Happens when we attribute losses to internal stable reasons (ability), when we don't think we have the ability to succeed, playing because we have to, negative past experience

• Type 1: specific LH to a specific skill/sport

• Type 2: General LH linked to all sports

Suggest strategies a coach could use to avoid a performer experiencing learned helplessness (4)

• Remind of previous successes

• Verbal persuasion / positive feedback 

• Stress management techniques 

• Attribution retraining

Attribution retraining

Mastery orientation

Attribution retraining - changing the reasons given for success and failure

Mastery orientation - state of mind where they believe success is in their control. When high confidence, correct attribution