Comprehensive Human Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, and Cytology Review

Vocabulary flashcards covering foundational concepts in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and cytology based on lecture materials.

Human Anatomy

The study of body structures, derived from a Greek word meaning "to cut".

Human Physiology

The science of body functions, detailing how the body works to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis

A dynamic condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment to maintain body functions within a narrow range compatible with life.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical processes in the body, including catabolic (breaking down) and anabolic (building up) reactions.

Catabolism

Chemical processes in the body that involve breaking down complex substances.

Anabolism

Chemical processes in the body that involve building up complex structures from simpler ones.

Differentiation

The development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state.

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

The body fluid located inside cells.

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

The body fluid located outside cells, including interstitial fluid, plasma, and lymph.

Interstitial Fluid

The extracellular fluid located specifically between cells and tissues.

Receptor

A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center.

Control Center

A component in a feedback system, usually the brain, that sets the range of values for a controlled condition, evaluates receptor input, and generates output commands.

Effector

A body organ or tissue that receives output from the control center and produces a response that alters the controlled condition.

Negative Feedback System

A feedback mechanism that reverses a change in a controlled condition, such as blood pressure regulation.

Positive Feedback System

A feedback mechanism that strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition, such as uterine contractions during childbirth.

Anatomical Position

A standard stance where the subject stands erect facing the observer, head level, eyes facing forward, feet flat on the floor directed forward, and arms at the sides with palms forward.

Sagittal Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides.

Midsagittal Plane

A single sagittal plane that divides the body into equal, mirror-image right and left halves.

Frontal Plane

A plane that divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions; also known as a coronal plane.

Transverse Plane

A plane that divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions; also called a horizontal or cross-sectional plane.

Pleura

The serous membrane that covers the lungs (visceral pleura) and lines the walls of the pleural cavity (parietal pleura).

Pericardium

The serous membrane that covers the heart (visceral pericardium) and lines the pericardial cavity walls (parietal pericardium).

Peritoneum

The serous membrane that covers the abdominal organs (visceral peritoneum) and lines the abdominal cavity walls (parietal peritoneum).

Radiography

A medical imaging procedure using X-rays to produce images of interior structures where dense structures like bone block rays and hollow areas appear black or gray.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A safe imaging procedure using a powerful magnetic field to differentiate normal and abnormal soft tissues, unsuitable for patients with metal implants.

Matter

Any substance that has mass and occupies space.

Major Elements

The four most abundant elements in the human body: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N).

Atom

The smallest quantity of an element that retains the unique properties of that element.

Proton

A subatomic particle located in the nucleus of an atom carrying a positive charge ($p^+$).

Neutron

A subatomic particle located in the nucleus of an atom with no electrical charge ($n$).

Electron

A subatomic particle that orbits outside the nucleus carrying a negative electrical charge ($e^-$).

Valence Shell

An atom's outermost electron shell.

Octet Rule

The principle that atoms are most stable when there are exactly eight electrons in their valence shell, with exceptions such as hydrogen and helium.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a specific element.

Mass Number

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Radioisotope

An unstable, heavy isotope that gives off subatomic particles or electromagnetic energy as it decays.

Free Radical

An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron, making it highly reactive, unstable, and capable of damaging cellular components.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the electrostatic association between oppositely charged ions.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond in which atoms share electrons unequally, creating partial positive and partial negative charges on opposite ends.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak bond formed between a partially positive hydrogen atom of a polar molecule and a partially negative atom of another polar molecule.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst, typically composed of protein, that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed.

Inorganic Compound

A substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen, such as water, salts, acids, and bases.

Organic Compound

A carbon-based substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen held together by covalent bonds.

pH

A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration ($H^+$) in a solution, expressed on a scale from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic).

Buffer

A solution that stabilizes pH by neutralizing small amounts of added acids or bases.

Monosaccharide

The simplest form and building block monomer of carbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Triglyceride

The most abundant lipid in the human body and diet, composed of a glycerol backbone bound to three fatty acid chains.

Phospholipid

An amphipathic lipid composed of a glycerol backbone, two hydrophobic fatty acid chains, and a hydrophilic phosphate- and nitrogen-containing group.

Peptide Bond

A covalent bond linking adjacent amino acids together to form a peptide or polypeptide chain.

Denaturation

A process in which heat or pH changes alter the 3D shape and functional capacity of a protein.

Nucleotide

The monomer subunit of nucleic acids, consisting of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The primary energy currency of the cell, composed of ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups.

Cytology

The study of cell structure and function; also known as cell biology.

Plasma Membrane

A flexible, sturdy lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins that separates the cell's internal environment from the external environment.

Integral Proteins

Membrane proteins that extend into or completely across the lipid bilayer; also called transmembrane proteins.

Peripheral Proteins

Membrane proteins that are attached to the inner or outer surface of the lipid bilayer and can be removed without disrupting the membrane.

Glycoprotein

A membrane protein with carbohydrate groups attached that face the extracellular fluid, functioning in cell identification and recognition.

Concentration Gradient

The difference in the concentration of a chemical between one region (such as inside the cell) and another region (outside the cell).

Osmosis

The diffusion of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

Isotonic Solution

A solution in which the concentration of solutes is equal to that inside the cell, resulting in no net water movement or volume change.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cytoplasm, causing water to enter the cell and make it swell.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm, causing water to exit the cell and lead to cell shrinkage or crenation.

Primary Active Transport

A transport mechanism that moves solutes against their concentration gradient directly using energy derived from ATP hydrolysis.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A primary active transport protein that uses ATP to extrude 3 sodium ions ($Na^+$) out of the cell and import 2 potassium ions ($K^+$) into the cell.

Secondary Active Transport

A transport process that couples the uphill movement of a solute against its gradient to the downhill movement of another ion, driven by an established electrochemical gradient.

Phagocytosis

A form of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large, solid particles like debris or pathogens into intracellular vesicles.

Ribosome

A tiny cellular organelle made of RNA and protein that serves as the site for protein synthesis.

Golgi Complex

An organelle consisting of 4 to 6 flattened membranous sacs (cisterns) that process, sort, and package proteins and lipids for transport.

Lysosome

A membrane-bound organelle containing digestive enzymes that break down unneeded intracellular materials, worn-out organelles (autophagy), or whole cells (autolysis).

Mitochondria

Double-membraned organelles that act as the primary sites of ATP production in the cell.

Proteasome

A cellular structure responsible for degrading unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins.

Nucleus

The largest cellular organelle that acts as the cell's control center by housing DNA and genetic instructions.

Mitosis

The nuclear division phase of somatic cell division, consisting of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis

A specialized two-stage cell division process occurring in reproductive organs that produces gametes containing half the chromosome count of the original cell.