Introduction to the Modern Middle East Midterm

Nasserism

Gamal Abdel Nasser, Arab nationalism, socialist modernization, and anti-monarchism.

Seen as a threat to KSA monarchy

nationalized the Suez Canal, defiance of the westP

Pan-Arabism

Shared identity and goals of the Arab people. Often failed due to personal ambitions of leaders and differing national interests

Ba’thism

A political ideology advocating for Arab unity, socialism, and the revival of Arab influence, primarily associated with the Ba'ath Party in Syria and Iraq. Secular party

Zionism

Jewish settlement of Palestine – right for the Jews to have a national homelandand self-determination in their historical homeland.

Revisionist Zionism

Stronger, more militant approach to Zionism, advocating for the right to a nation-state

Pharaonism

Egyptian nationalism emphasizing pre-Islamic identity. Sought to unify Egypt — largely unsuccessful

Kemalism

The founding ideology of modern Turkey, established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, promoting secularism, nationalism, and modernization. Successful in providing greater political freedom/competitive elections

Islamic Modernism

Islam can coexist with more modern beliefs on society. Often clashed with Wahhabism. Calls for reform

Wahhabism

Basis of the Saudi state — strict societal following of Islamic law.

Salafiyyah

A reform movement within Sunni Islam that advocates a return to the practices of the earliest Muslims, emphasizing a strict interpretation of the Quran and Hadith.

The Autocratic State

Authoritarian governance structures throughout the ME. Typically characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and suppression of dissent.

Al-Infitah

From the October Paper, bring Egypt away from state socialism, and integrate into the global economy

Benefitted only a small wealthy elite, leaving most worse off
- foreign banks with exemptions/incentives, foreign companies, encourage the expansion of the private sector, investment in luxury outpaced investment in agriculture/industry

Etatism

TURKEY — the government should take control of economic development. ATATURK: strengthening and nationalizing the economy is necessary for a modern Turkey

Defensive Developmentalism

ME states shifting to a modern/European model of statehood in order to viably compete with global superpowers. Involves some abandonment of their governmental values

The Developmentalist Ethos

Active government intervention/policy can bring the economic and social productivity of the nation up. Use the nation’s own resources, directed by the government

Orientalism (Said)

The Western perception of Asia/ME as something outlandish, mysterious, backward, etc.

Culture Talk (Mamdani)

Emphasizing culture in political analysis. Connects to Orientalism by justifying Western interventions in the ME, calling them efforts toward civilizing a backward people.

Discusses the danger of making an inherently political issue a religious one

Clash of Civilizaitons (Huntington)

Tensions between civilizations will now begin to result from clashing cultures, not ideologies. Claims that in the post-Cold War world, ideological differences are extinct, so the only thing to fight about is cultural differences.

The West and ME lie at a cultural fault line, facilitating their cultural clashes

Roots of Muslim Rage

Attributes muslim resentment toward the west to the declining global/political power of Islam since the Crusades, etc. Also claims that the non-secular nature of political Islam clashes with the secular nature of Western politics.

Imperialism

Both formal (colonies, treaties) and informal (spheres of influence and agreements); foreign control and exploitation of weaker societies

The Mandate System

European administration of former Ottoman territories

To “prepare territories for self rule”, but really a way to keep territories subjugated

BRITISH —> jordan and Iraq, palestine (removed by the Peel Commission)

Protectorate

Indirect rule by a foreign power; exerting influence with local rulers while maintaining a facade of local sovereignty

King Fuad I of Egypt

Oversaw Egypt’s transition from a protectorate to an “independent” kingdom. Established Egypt as a constitutional monarchy

Often at odds with the Wafd Party —> long-term instability in Egypt

King Farouk I of Egypt

Last ruling king of Egypt

Unable to reduce British influence —- opposition

Defeat in the first Arab-Israeli War

Lavish lifestyle, corrupt —> strengthened the Free Officers Movement

Free Officers (Gamal Abdel Nasser) —> overthrew Farouk ==> Rise of Nasser and arab nationalism

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Led Free Officers in overthrowing monarchy, ending british influence

Nationalized the Suez Canal — hero of Arab independence

**Pan-Arabism, uniting against western imperialism

Socialist reforms for land, industry, and education —> economic challenges

Anwar Sadat

Took power when Egypt was almost bankrupt, lost Sinai, and badly hurt by the 6 Day War

Tried to pressure the US to be a mediator between Egypt and Israel, made a show of distancing from the USSR in favor of the US

Started the October War to prove military ability

Began Infitah, not well-liked, seen as a Western shift

Trip to Jerusalem —> seen as a traitor

negotiated for Sinai AND self-determination for Palestinians at Camp david

Hosni Mubarak

Assumed power after assassination of Sadat —> AUTHORITARIAN

Controlled opposition, restricted civil liberties

Strengthened Egypt-U.S. alliance, $ aid, made peace with Israel ==> Egypt is now a mediator in ME peace

Economic liberalization —> $, but inequality

Rule ended with Arab Spring

Arab Socialist Union (ASU)

Founded by Nasser to promote socialism, Pan-Arabism, and economic conservatism; only legal party under Nasser one-party

Monopolized power, suppressing opposition

Weakened and dissolved by Sadat after Nasser’s death —> multi-party

Camp David Accords

Carter, Sadat, and some Israeli for negotiations

1. Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty, gradual pullout from Sinai in exchange for Egypt’s recognition of Israel and withholding military action

2. 5 year plan for limited Palestinian self-governance —> intentionally vague

Alienated Egypt from the rest of the Arab world, including Sadat

Wafd

Nationalist, demanding independence from British

Led mass protests as a symbol for nationalism

Established, with King Fuad/Farouk, the first Constitution — challenged their royal rule to advance democracy

United Arab Republic (UAR)

Political union between Egypt and Syria, led by Nasser

Attempt at a beginning of Pan-Arabism

Political, economic, and cultural differences, collapsing soon after being founded

Challenges of achieving pan-arabism

Suez Crisis

Nasser nationalized the Suez, controlled by the British and French at the time.

Israel invaded the Sinai in response, with British and French joining to reassert the canal

Condemned by the US and USSR to ceasefire

==> Nasser elevated, British and French shown to be weakened

October War (1973)

Started by Sadat as show of force to recover from the psychological loss of the Six Day War, not really for capturing Israeli territory. Still, gained the Sinai back and shattered the myth of Israeli invincibility.

Held their ground to wait for international involvement, but if they didn’t they may have actulaly won

US supplied Israel while USSR supplied Egypt, heavily

Six Day War (1967)

USSR and syria falsely reported an Israeli attack on Syria —> Nasser deployed troops to Sinai, closing Israeli access to the Suez —> Iraq, Jordan, Egypt, Syria join in a defense pact —> Israeli Mossad agent gets “green light” from US to strike first —> wrecked almost all of the Egyptian air force

Israel seized the Sinai, West bank, Suez, Golan Heights, and Gaza, 3x land in days.

Undermined Nasser’s credibility

Israelis became invincible, Arab unity failed; corruption and poor military planning was exposed, overreliance on USSR

King Abdullah I of Jordan

Founder of Jordan, leader of the Hashemite Dynasty

Wanted to annex the West Bank, and therefore played his own role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War

• Sought peace with Israel —> allienated Jordan from the other Arabs

• Engaged in secret negotiations

• Rejected help to Palestinians, thereby contributing to the fragmentation of Arab politics

Installed by the British, and focused on maintaining ties with the British

King Hussein (Abdullah’s son)

Modernized Jordan (economy, education, infrastructure); maintained a stable monarchy

Advocate for Palestinian rights and arab unity, with a significant role in allying with the other nations during the 6 day war

Stabilized peace with Israel by recognizing their existence after Egypt

==> very moderate voice, promoting regional peace

Black September

As the PLO began to operate as a state within a state (Jordan), the Jordanian army fought back against Palestinians who challenged Hussein’s authority, deepening divisions.

PLO was forced to relocate to Lebanon as their influence decreased in Jordan

Solidified King Hussein

Arab Legion

Initially created to maintain order in Transjordan, trained/equipped by the British

Fought Israeli forces in 1948 War, capturing the West Bank … —> annexing

Effective due to british training

Loyal to the Hashemite Dynasty, helped solidify their rule

Ibn Saud

Through military campaigns, brought tribes together to form Saudi Arabia with strong indigenous roots

Centralized authority into a structured monarchy, making decisions unilaterally, with no parties, cabinet, constitution, etc. —> only the Quran ruled.

Used the Quran as a political tool and used this to place power firmly in hands of royals

Ikhwan

The Muslim Brotherhood founded in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna to promote Islamic values/social justice and call for an Islamic state

Religious/social movement —> political force in favor of Sharia law

Opposed the British and secularist rule of Farouk

Al-Sabah

Ruling family of Kuwait since forever

Gained independence from the Ottomans and British

Supported cooperation among Gulf states

Fled the country during Saddam Hussein’s invasion

Oversaw economic recovery and modernization; diversification from oil

The Concert of Europe

After Napoleonic wars, European powers arranged to maintain a balance of power in Europe to prevent the rise of any one nation. Heavily interested in the Ottoman Empire’s decline

• Intervened to assist Greek Independence

• How would European powers deal with the weakening Ottoman State

Sykes-Picot exemplified how European powers maintained control of the future of the ME

Sectarianism

Division of people along religious and ethnic lines

Exploited by European powers to assist their own interests

Split between Shia/Sunni, Jews/Christians/Muslims

JORDAN: system of proportional representation based on sectarian identity. France positioned itself as the protectors of Maronites, pressuring the Ottomans to use a sectarian system.

King Faisal I of Syria

Worked with T.E. Lawrence during the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire —> Arab independence

First King of Syria after WWI, then defeated by the French, who imposed a mandate

Installed by the British as the King of Iraq

• Developed Iraq, blending ethnic groups, promoting pan-Arabism

• Arab nationalist movements to resist Western colonialism

Hafez al-Assad

Established the Assad Regime under the Ba’ath Party (1 party state)

• Strengthened the military, ensuring the strength of the Assad regime

Assad = alawite, allowed them to gain significant influence —> sectarian tensions

Contributed to the Six Day War and Lebanese Civil War

Political repression

• Hama Massacre, curshing the Muslim Brotherhood

Bashar al-Assad

Violent crackdown on pro-democracy protests during the Arab Spring; authoritarian rule to crush dissent

Syrian Civil War — Iran and Russia backed Assad while the US/Turkey/Gulf supported opposition groups

• Dependence on Russia/Iran

Ba’ath Party in Syria

Secular party against political islam, in favor of pan-Arabism; state-led socialism

Hafez came to power in part of a Ba’athist coup

Sole party controlling the military, economy, etc.

• Network of security agencies and logalist elites

Dominated by the Alawite minority

Syrian Nasserism

UAR with Egypt under Nasser — Arab unity, socialism

Dissatisfied by egyptian dominance, Syria backed out

Ba’athist military coup dissolved Nasserism in Syria

Yasser Arafat

Founder of Fatah in Kuwait, along with Palestinian nationals. Emphasized:

• Self-reliance in P. armed struggle

• Arab states have failed P —> no more diplomacy, direct attacks on Israel

Recognized Israel’s right to exist —> diplomacy

Fatah

Led by Yasser Arafat — began the first true armed struggle against Israel using self-reliance and direct attacks

• Sabotaging of Israeli water pump in the Galilee

• Small, guerilla warfare

Keeps nationalism on world stage

Became dominant over PLO

“terrorist tactics” —> terrorist designation by Israel

Tensions between Fatah and the. PLO weakened Palestinian unity

Haj Amin al-Husseini

Served as Grand Mufti of Jerusalem

Leader of PLO, resisting British Mandate/Israel —> protests

Pivotal in Arab Revolt against Jewish immigration

Allied with Nazis —> supported Axis propaganda

Opposed 1947 UN Plan —> First Arab-Israeli War

EXILED…influenced Arafat

David Ben-Gurion

First PM of Israel — declared the State of Israel (….First A-I War)

Led the Jewish Agency to promote Jewish immigration

Asserted state authority over diverse early Israeli organizations —> IDF takes control

Ensured the Mapai Party remained dominant

Military deterrence: Any acts of aggression met with disproportionate response

Menachem Begin

PM2; Leader of Herut/Likud Party

Led the Irgun (paramilitary fighting against British in Mandate P.)

Ended dominance of Labor Party

Signed Camp David

Expanded Settlements in West Bank and Gaza

Ordered Invasion of Lebanon to exterminate PLO

Father of political Zionism

Jews need homeland to escape anti-semitism

Organized the First Zionist Congress, founding the World Zionist Organization

Lobbied Ottomans and Europeans —> influenced British support (…Balfour)

Vladimir Jabotinsky

Founder of Revisionist Zionism

IMMEDIATE, MILITARIZED establishment in all of Palestine, including Jordan

Created the Jewish Legion to fight against Anti-Semitism

Opposed restrictions to immigration, emphasized mass migration

Iron Wall Doctrine — Arab resistance is natural and must be strongly put down —> inspired Irgun and Begin; Herut/Likud

PLO

Umbrella group representing various P. factions. Eventually recognized as the political representative of Palestinians

Rise of armed resistance
Began as Egyptian subsidy —> Later independent

The result of fading hope of help from other Arab nations

Fatah/Arafat took control —> diplomacy

Jordan —> Lebanon

Guerilla Warfare

Ambushes, bombings, raids —> Used by non-state actors/paramilitaries

Zionist (Irgun and Lehi) —> British Mandate

Palestinian rebels —> Arab revolt, PLO employed this strategy

UNRWA

Established to assist P. refugees following the First A-I War in Gaza, WB, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria

Education, healthcare, food, etc.

Registry of P. refugees to preserve political identity and claims to homes lost

Includes care for descendents of refugees

Aliyah

Immigration of jews to Israel, return to the Jewish homeland

Waves: Early Ottoman migration —> Nazi persecution —> British Mandate —> Formation of the State of Israel

Israeli Aims of the Nakba - 1948, ongoing

Violent mass expulsion of Palestinians from their homes/villages by zionist forces

• Ethnic cleansing with surprisingly quick and intense force — systemic attacks

  • Execution is cheaper than imprisonment

• Paramilitary and military gangs performed raids

  • Often to instill psychological fear to get Palestinians to leave before they are killed

• Biological warfare (water supply - typhoid)

Haifa Shore drownings

Homes taken over by immigrants, streets renamed, etc. within days

Britain’s Role in the Nakba

British forces urged Palestinians to “negotiate their own peace", instead of controlling the region they were in charge of

- British disarmed P. residents

• Pressured Palestinians to surrender instead of resist

• Withdrew from key positions, allowing immigrants to step in

• Provided zionists with crucial data for demographics and land, while advising them on strategic maneuvers.

Responses to the Nakba

UN observers were reluctant; full scale was left unreported; Holocaust created sympathy, so it was impossible to instill sympathy for Palestinians

Palestinian response was weak and disorganized, while Arab involvement was too little too late

• Abdullah was planning his own takeover of the WB in secret agreements with Israel

UN Resolution 181 — UN Partition Plan for Palestine

One Jewish, One Arab; Jerusalem under international control

The jewish state received most of the land

• Most of the arable land and coast area

==> Palestinian resistance hardened, State of Israel, Nakba

Plan Dalet

Developed by haganah before the pullout of the British

Secure control over territory to create a Jewish majority in allocated areas

Capture and massacre —> change the demographics of Palestine

Military preparation for war

Haganah

Primary Jewish paramilitary during British Mandate. Later became IDF

Formed to protect from Arab Attacks

Opposed British restrictions on Jewish immigration

Developed Dalet

Became IDF after State of Israel

Palmach - Strike Forces

Part of Haganah, elite fighting force

Specialized force to fight Nazis

Secured Haifa and the roads to Jerusalem

Shaped IDF military doctrine and leadership

Irgun

Radical Zionist paramilitary faction —> advocated for the use of force in the Establishment of Israel

Splintered from the Haganah in favor of more force, led by Menachem Begin (PM2)

Guerrilla; King David Hotel Bombing to target Mandate + Arabs

Make British stop resisting immigration; British repressed this group

Eventually merged with Haganah for IDF

Many became prominent in Likud

Stern Gang/Lehi

Extremist paramilitaries during Mandate; broke away from Irgun as they thought their stance was too moderate, rejected Haganah-British cooperation

Violence and terrorism —> British/Arab

Initially wanted to collaborate with Nazis to support a Jewish state —> then focused on expelling British Mandate

==> Conflict with British and moderate Jews

Mapai

Socialist Party, once dominant; Marxist, state-controlled industry, etc. Primary component of the architects of Israel

Led by Ben-Gurion

Emphasis on Jewish nationalism, strong economy, etc.

• Commitment to settlement of Palestine

• Maintain security

Later became more moderate, which then allowed the takeover of Right-Wing Likud

Intended to use moderate diplomacy to attain statehood

Balfour Declaration

First major support of Zionism

Allowed for British influence in the Suez canal

CONTRADICTIONS

• Support for Jews, but protection of the Arab majority

• Defied the Husayn-McMahon correspondence

• Intentionally vague language “national home”

No recognition of Palestinians as state-holders

Supreme Muslim Council

During Mandate, established by British authorities to represent Muslim community

• Led by Haj Amin al-Husseini

• Managed religious endowments, education, and religious institutions

• Advocated for Arab nationalism and resisted J. immigration

• Helped organize resistance against the British and Arab Revolt; opposed Balfour

• British dissolved this due to its collaboration with the Nazis

1939 White Paper

Addressing Arab concerns

• No intention to turn all of P. into Israel, arabs should not be replaced

Rejected by zionists —> deepened divisions

Limited Jewish migration —> opposed by Lehi/Irgun/Haganah
Restricted land transfers and granted Palestinian independence in 10 years (also intentionally vague)

Yishuv

Jewish community that lived in Palestine prior to Israel under Ottoman Rule

Mostly agricultural settlements and small communities

Grew with Aliyahs the Mandate

The Jewish Agency represented the Yishuv and became its main governing body, organized the Haganah

“Land for Peace”

Peace and withdrawal from Sinai, etc. in exchange for peace and recognition

—> Egypt-Israeli Agreement

Fuad Shihab

President of Lebanon — led through the Lebanese Civil War

Attempted to defuse sectarian tensions to ensure national unity, working with Western powers

• Reforms, military intervention, political concessions

• Modernization of infrastructure/education

  • Tried to make the Lebanese Army netural

Rafiq hariri

PM of Lebanon recognized for rebuilding Lebanon after the Civil War and modernize infrastructure/economy; big business guy

Privatization, foreign investment, etc.

Close ties with Syrian al-Assad

Assassination —> withdrawal of Syrian forces in the nation

Lebanon Sectarianism

Roots in Ottoman millet system, which recognized many communities

French Mandate granted privileges to Maronites, deepening divisions

Led to Civil war b/w

• Maronites

• Shia, Sunni, Druze; PLO and Hezbollah

Proxy battleground between Sunni/Shia Saudi/Iran

Confessionalism

Main political offices of Lebanon are distributed among the different religious sects

• Maronites, Sunni, Shia, Druze

Reinstated after Civil War, with certain positions allocated to certain sects

National Pact

Part of the confessional system

Power sharing

• President = Maronite

• PM = Sunni

• Speaker of Parliament = Shia

• Sectarian quotas in government and civil service

• 50/50 between christians/muslims in parliament

Za’im

Leader over a certain sect or political faction

• Patronage system: rely on the Za’im for a job/benefits in exchange for political support

• Key figures in confessionalism

Prominent during Ottoman Empire/French Mandate —> intermediaries between communities and colonial rulers

Sultan Abdulhamid II

Authoritarian rule, centralizing power to himself, suspending the Constitution and dissolving parliament

Modernized, expanded infrastructure

Promote Pan-Islamism under the Ottoman Caliphate

• Response to growing separatist movements

• Protector of all Muslims

Began to lose a lot of control all over

Abdicated after the Young Turk Revolution with the Parliament/Constitution

==> End of absolute monarchy

Sultan Mahmud II

Reforming the Ottoman Empire, beginning the Tanzimat era —> Westernization

• Military: Ottoman Army modeled after European armies > Janissary

  • Abolished the Janissary Corps, due to their obstruction of reforms

Auspicious Incident — Dismantling Janissary —> Massacre of lots of members ==> greater control over government

Centralized authority

Western Education to modernize; modern legal system to replace Sharia

Abbasid Empire

Third Islamic Caliphate, overthrowing the Umayyad

Capital in Baghdad —> Islamic Golden Age

• Science, philosophy, art, architecture

• Economic prosperity (silk road)

Could not control distant provinces, little political power —> Mongol Sack, ending the Empire

Foundations for cultural/intellectual/pollitical structures —> rise of dynasties

CUP - Committee of Union and Progress

Ottoman —> Young Turk Revolution

• reform Ottoman Empire in response to decline

• Western modernization, constitutionalism, restore the constitution

Led the Young Turk Revolution, forcing the Constitution and Parliament ==> Constitutional monarchy > absolute

Quickly shifted to authoritarianism —> Seized Ottoman control

Supported Germany in WWI + Armenian Genocide ==> loss of power, collapse of Ottomans

Capitulations

Foreign powers given exemptions from the legal system/tax ssytem —> economic exploitation, weakening sovereignty

Abolished under the Young Turks, but the damage was done

Growing influence of West

Devşirme

Christian boys taken, converted to Islam —> trained in various roles

Education in military, religion, and Ottoman study

Many joined the Janissary corps, administrative roles, etc.

Abolished in the face of changing needs

Janissaries

Discipline, loyal, effective, loyal to the Sultan; from the devsirme system

Unique place in society, directly under Sultan

One of the first armies to use gunpowder

eventually became hereditary and less loyal to the Sultan, disbanded by Mahmud II

Timar

Land grant system from Sultan to a goverment agent in return for service, loyalty, etc. —> maintained a certain number of soldiers in the army

Maintain local military forces — raised/equiped soldiers from their lands in exchange for land

• Expected to collect tax

• Land ownership ←→ military obligations\

Growth of janissaries decreased need for this

Mahdi

Sunni: future caliph to unite the muslim community, righteous leader chosen by god

Shia: 12th imam who went into hiding, will defeat evil and establish a just Islamic govenment

Hatt-i şerif of Gulhane

Key in the Tanzimat era

Modernize the empire and protect the rights of all subjects

• Equality before the law, reducing taxation, reforming structures

• Curb corruption, etc.

• Guaranteeing the rights of non-Muslims, religious tolerance > millet

Khedive

A title for the ruler of Egypt and Sudan from 1867 to 1914. Introduced by the Ottoman Empire for Ismail Pasha to signify semi-autonomy. The Khedive had control over Egypt's administration but was under Ottoman (later British) influence. The title ended in 1914 when Egypt became a British protectorate. The Khedives played a role in modernizing Egypt, including the construction of the Suez Canal.

Public Debt Administration

A body established in 1880 by the Ottoman Empire to manage Egypt’s growing debt, primarily due to the extravagant spending of Khedive Ismail. It was controlled by European powers (mainly Britain and France) to ensure debt repayment. The administration had significant influence over Egypt’s finances and economy, marking the beginning of British economic control in the country.

UN Resolution 242

Adopted in 1967 following the Six-Day War, it called for Israel's withdrawal from territories occupied during the war (including the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem) and for secure and recognized borders for all states in the region. It emphasized peaceful negotiations and the right of all nations to live in peace. Resolution 242 became a cornerstone for later peace processes, including the Camp David Accords and Oslo Accords

Algeria

AlgiersB

Bahrain

Manama

Egypt

Cairo

Iran

Tehran

Iraq

Baghdad

Israel/Palestine

Jerusalem

Jordan

Amman