AP AFAM Unit 2: Freedom, Enslavement, and Resistance

Who were Ladinos?

early 16th century, free and enslaved Africans traveled with Europeans on the early explorations of the Americas + were the 1st Africans in the U.S

Ladinos were part of a generation known as “Atlantic Creoles”. Who were they?

Africans who worked as intermediaries, or mediators, before the dominance of chattel slavery / respected in society

What major roles did Africans in the Americas play during the 15th + 16th centuries?

1. Conquistadors in hopes of gaining their freedom 2. Enslaved workers in the mines + agriculture fields 3. Free skilled workers + artisans

Who was Juan Garrido?

free african conquistador born in Kongo that moved to Portugal / became the 1st known African to arrive in N.A. + explored present day Florida in 1513

How did Juan Garrido maintain his freedom?

served in the spanish military forces + conquered indigenous populations

Who was Estevanico / Esteban from the 16th century?

enslaved African healer from Morocco / forced to work as an explorer + translator in southwestern U.S. / killed by indigenous groups resisting Spanish colonialism

How long did the transatlantic slave trade last, and how many enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas?

over 350 years, from early 1500s to mid 1800s, and over 12.5 million were forcibly transported + enslaved

Where did 48% of all Africans brought to the U.S. go?

Charleston, South Carolina = known as the center of United States slave trading

The top 5 enslaving nations involved in the transatlantic slave trade?

Portugal, Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands

Where did enslaved Africans transported to North America primarily come from?

Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Libera, Cote d’ Ivoire, Ghana, Benin, Nigeria, Angola, and Mozambique

What was the first part of enslaved Africans’ journeys to the Americas?

captured + taken the the Atlantic coast / waited in crowded, unsanitary dungeons + could last several months

What was the Middle Passage?

traveling across the Atlantic Ocean = lasted up to three months / africans were beaten, tortured, raped, and suffered from disease and malnourishment

About how many captive Africans didn’t survive the Middle Passage?

15%, almost 2 million people

What was the third part of the journey for enslaved Africans to the Americas?

arrived at ports in the Americas → quarantines, resold, and transported to many places / could take as long as both the 1st + 2nd part of their journey (6+ months)

How did the transatlantic slave trade weaken West African societies?

provided monetary incentives to use violence to enslave others / wars between kingdoms increased because of the presence of firearms from trade with the Europeans

How did coastal states and interior states differ in Africa?

coastal states = wealthy from trade with goods + people / interior states = less stable because of the threat of capture + enslavement

How did African leaders maintain their dominance + grow their wealth?

sold soldiers + war captives from opposing ethnic groups and kingdoms

Who was Olaudah Equiano / Gustavus Vassa?

writer and an abolitionist, enslaved as a child in W. Africa, shipped to the Caribbeans + sold three times before purchasing his freedom / wrote an autobiography about his experiences

What was the significance of Olaudah’s / Gustavus’s autobiography?

nine editions were published + it helped secure the British Slave Trade Act of 1807

How did captured Africans on slave ships resist enslavement?

staged hunger strikes, jumped overboard, communicated with either other despite not speaking the same languages to form revolts

What were the effects of Africans’ resistance on slave ships?

made the slave trade more expensive + dangerous → changes in the designs of slave ships = barricades + added nets to stop overboard jumping + guns

What was the 1839 La Amistad slave revolt?

Sengbe Pieh from Sierra Leone led a group of 53 enslaved Africans to take control of a slave ship + killed the captain + cook → charged + after 2 years, the Supreme Court ruled that they had been illegally kidnapped + allowed their freedom → allowed to return back to Africa

Who was Marqu/Margru?

one of 3 girls who survived the journey on La Amistad / sold into slavery by her father as payment for a debt

Who was Grabo/Grabeau?

another leader of the La Amistad slave revolt / rice planter + kidnapped + sold into slavery to pay off his uncle’s debt

What were conditions like on slave ships?

unsanitary + cramped → increase in disease, disability + death / iron instruments used to force~feed those who resisted

What year was the transatlantic slave trade banned (even though it continued)?

1808

How did the enslaved population grow in the Americas after the ban of the transatlantic slave trade?

through childbirth to meet the growing demand for agricultural work

Why were African Americans especially valuable in the lower South?

because it was dominated by the slave~cotton system → needed for the growing demand for enslaved laborers

What was the “Second Middle Passage” in the 19th century?

cotton book in the Lower South → over 1 million African Americans forcibly relocated to from the upper south to the lower south

What African American skills did enslavers exploit?

blacksmithing, basketweaving, and the cultivation of rice and indigo / painters, carpenters, tailors, musicians, and healers

What was the gang system that enslaved agricultural laborers worked in?

enslaved people worked from sunup to sunset under the watch of an overseer while they cultivated crops like cotton, sugar + tobacco / enslaved people working in gangs created work songs with rhythms to keep up their pace of work

What was the task system that enslaved agricultural laborers worked in?

enslaved people worked individually until they finished a certain task, with less supervisions / this system was used for the cultivation of crops like rice + indigo / some people in these systems maintained their language

How was the Gullah creole language maintained by enslaved Africans?

those working in the task system, under less supervision, were able to maintain this language

How did slavery benefit the North even though they didn’t have the “traditional” forms of slavery?

crops + goods cultivated from the South = bought + used in the North

How did slavery create wealth disparities in America?

enslaved African Americans had no money to pass down to children + no legal rights to property

What was significant about slavery in the U.S. Constitution?

it refers to slavery but avoids using the actual term / the first time it’s used is in the 13th amendment, which abolishes slavery

How did slave codes define chattel slavery?

as race~based, inheritable, and a lifelong condition

How did slave codes “harden” the color line in American society?

restricted opportunities for upward mobility for enslaved black people

How did American laws restrict Black men in terms of voting?

they couldn’t testify against white people, and by 1860, Black men could only vote in 5 states = Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire

What was the 15th Amendment?

granted black men the right to vote

What was South Carolina’s 1740 slave code?

classified all black and indigenous people that did not submit to the government as nonsubjects and enslaved people / prohibited enslaved people from doing pretty much anything + condemned to death people who tried to defend themselves against attack by a white person

Why was the South Carolina 1740 slave code created?

in reaction to the Stono Rebellion in 1739

What was the result of Dred Scott’s freedom suit in 1857?

African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not and could never be considered citizens of the U.S. What is Partus Sequitur Ventrem?

Why was Partus Sequitur Ventrem created?

to prohibit the mixed race of black women from inheriting the free status of their fathers (usually children of rape)

What was the one~drop rule?

common practice in the 19th and 20th centuries that classified a person with any African descent as inferior

How did African Americans continue to hold on to their African heritage?

the tradition of quilt~making to storytell + keep memories

How did African Americans express their heritage in music?

in the creation of instruments such as rattles, the banjo, and drums to recreate instruments in West Africa

How did enslaved African Americans influence the development of American musical genres?

adapted Christian hymns + combined elements from Africa (ex. call + response, clapping, improvisation) with biblical themes → foundation for genres like gospel and the blues

What influenced the development of spirituals (or sorrow songs + jubilee songs)?

enslaved people sang songs to express their hardships + hopes / combined musical + faith traditions to create these spirituals

How did enslaved people use spirituals?

to resist the dehumanizing conditions + injustice of enslavement, express their creativity, + communicate strategic info, like warnings, plans to run away + methods of escape

What was the significance of double meaning in the lyrics of spirituals?

used biblical themes to alert enslaved people to opportunities to run away (like through the Underground Railroad

What was the significance of ethnonyms?

black people emphasized their American identity by rejecting the term “African” → described themselves as AfroAmerican, African American, and Black

What was the significance of St. Augustine?

oldest continuously occupied settlement of African American + European origin in the U.S. / enslaved refugees escaping Georgia and the Carolinas fled to St. Augustine, seeking asylum in Spanish Florida → offered freedom to enslaved people who converted to Catholicism

Who was Francisco Menendez?

an enslaved Senegambian who fought against the English in the Yamasee War / leader of Fort Mose = first sanctioned free Black town in the U.S.

How did Spanish Florida inspire the Stono Rebellion of 1739?

Spanish Florida offering emancipation to enslaved people fleeing the British colonies → partly inspired the Stono Rebellion

What is the Stono Rebellion of 1739?

Jemmy = an enslaved man from Angola left almost 100 enslaved AFrican Americans setting fire to plantations + marching towards sanctuary in Spanish Florida / most people in this rebellion were from the kingdom of Kongo (present~day Angola) + Portuguese speakers familiar with Catholicism

What was the response to the Stono Rebellion?

the South Carolina slave code of 1740 was created, and a month later, British colonial forces invaded Florida and destroyed Fort Mose

When was the Haitian Revolution?

from 1791 to 1804

What was the Haitian Revolution?

only uprising of enslaved people that resulted in overturning an enslaving government / transformed the European colony of Saint~Domingue into a Black republic free of slavery = Haiti = second independent nation in the Americas

What prompted the Louisiana Purchase?

france fighting in the Haitian revolution → Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. → doubled the size of the U.S. + expanded slavery

How was Haiti’s development hindered after the Haitian Revolution?

paying reparation for about 122 years in exchange for France’s recognition of Haiti as a free nation

Who were maroons?

Afro~descendants who escaped slavery to establish free communities

What was the role of maroons in the Haitian Revolution?

spread info across groups + organized attacks / many were former soldiers who were enslaved during the civil wars in the kingdom of Kongo + sent to Haiti

What uprising did the Haitian Revolution inspire?

the Louisiana slave revolt in 1811 = on of the largest on U.S. soil + the Male uprising of muslim slaves in 1835 = one of the largest revolt in Brazil

What daily forms of resistance did enslaved people use?

slowing work, breaking tools, stealing food + trying to run away → helped sustain the larger movement toward abolition

How were religious services + churches essential to the resistance to slavery?

served as sites for community gathering, celebration, mourning, sharing info, + political gathering

What was the earliest known slave revolt in the U.S.?

in 1526, enslaved Africans in the Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) were brought to aid Spanish exploration in South Carolina + Georgia → escaped into nearby indigenous communities

Who was Charles Deslondes?

inspired by the haitian revolution, he led the largest slave revolt on U.S. soil = the German Coast Uprising/Louisiana Revolt of 1811 / he organized support across local plantations + maroon communities → led them on a march towards new orleans

Who was Madison Washington?

an enslaved cook / led a mutiny on the slave ship Creole = transported enslaved people from Virginia to New Orleans / Washington seized the ship + sailed it to the Bahamas → nearly 130 African Americans gained their freedom What was the significance of the growing free Black population in the 18th + 19th centuries?

How did Black women activists advocate for social justice and reform?

used speeches + publications to encourage others to consider gender + black women’s experiences in antislavery discussions

Who was Maria W. Stewart?

1st black women to publish a political manifesto (document outlining the primary goals + values for an organization) + one of the 1st American women to give a public speech → contributed to the first wave of the feminist movement

Why is Black women’s activism historically significant?

they spoke out about how they faced discrimination for being both a woman + black / fought for abolitionism + rights of women → paved a path for the women’s suffrage movement

Where did maroon communities emerge + how long did they typically last?

throughout the African diaspora, often in remote + hidden environments beyond the view of enslavers / some lasted for a few years while other lasted for a full century

Who did maroon communities consist of?

self~emancipated people + people born free / African~based languages + cultures blended + flourished, even as maroons faced illness, starvation, + the constant threat of capture

What were maroon societies beyond the U.S. called?

Palenques in Spanish America + Quilombos in Brazil / the Quilombo dos Palmares = the largest maroon society in Brazil + lasted nearly a century

How did maroon leaders interact with colonial governments?

maroon leaders + their militaries started wars against governments to protect their freedom + right to self~govern / others made treaties with governments that require them to assist in ending slave revolts

Who was Bayano?

W. African king + enslaved in Panama + escaped / led a maroon community in wars against the Spanish in Panama in the 16th century

Who was Queen Nanny?

an Ashanti women + spiritual leader who led maroons in Jamaica in wars against the English in the 18th century

Where did about half of the ~10 million Africans who survived the Middle Passage end up?

Brazil

What was the result of African~born people arriving in Brazil on culture?

they forced communities to preserve cultural practices: capoeira = a martial art that combines music + call and response singing + the congada = a celebration of the king of Kongo + our lady of the rosary

What happened to the amount of enslaved Africans in Brazil during the 19th century?

more people being released from slavery because of Iberian laws + the Catholic church

What was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery in 1888, and how many enslaved Africans were freed?

about 1.5 million Africans were freed after Brazil’s abolition

How were maroons + the Seminoles connected?

maroons seeking refuge went to the Seminoles in Florida + were welcomed as kin / they fought alongside them in the Second Seminole War

Who was Gopher John, or John Horse?

a leader, diplomat + interpreter for the Seminole Maroons

Who was Abraham?

a black seminole leader + interpreter who fought for freedom against American troops in the 1800s

What is surprising about African American + Native American connections?

many African Americans were enslaved by the main 5 indigenous nations / the enslaved were forced with the N.A. on the Trail of Tears

What were the 5 large indigenous nations, and how did they participate in slavery?

Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek), + Seminoles / they adopted slave codes, created slave patrol + assisted in capturing fleeing enslaved Africans

What was the effect of slavery on N.A. and A.A. relationships?

severed black~indigenous kinship ties + outed mixed race people from society

Who were emigrationsists and what did they propose?

people who supported building communities outside the U.S. + suggested locations in Latin America, the Caribbean + W. Africa for relocation b/c of large pop. of Afro~descendants + shared histories

Who were 2 examples of black abolitionists who supported emigration + embraced black nationalism?

Paul Cuffee + Martin R. Delany

Who was Paul Cuffee?

1st people to relocate A.A. from the U.S. to Africa / took 39 African Americans in 1815 to a British black settlement in Sierra Leone

What was a result of the Fugitive Slave Acts?

formerly enslaved abolitionists = not protected from recapture (even in the North) → moved to England + Ireland and advocated for U.S. abolition there

What were the strategies used by advocates of radical resistance during the 19th century to promote change?

posted publications that detailed the horrors of slavery to encourage enslaved A.A. to use any means necessary to achieve their freedom

What is the Underground Railroad?

a covert network of Black + white abolitionists who provided transportation, shelter. + other resources to enslaved people fleeing the South / helped them resettle into free territories in the U.S. North, Canada, + Mexico

About how many enslaved African Americans reached freedom through the Underground Railroad?

30,000

What was Congress’s reaction to the increasing number of enslaved African Americans escaping through the Underground Railroad?

enacted the Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 + 1850 = allowed local governments to legally kidnap + return enslaved refugees to their enslavers

Who was Harriet Tubman?

most well~known conductors of the Underground Railroad / fled enslaved + returned to the South about 19 times → led ~80 enslaved African Americans to freedom / sang spirituals to alert enslaved people of plans to leave

How did Harriet Tubman contribute to the Civil war?

used her geographical knowledge + social network to serve as a spy + nurse for the Union army

What was significant about the Combahee River raid + Harriet Tubman?

she became the first American woman to lead a major military operation

How did African Americans use photography in the 19th century?

embraced it to counter stereotypes about black people by portraying themselves as citizens worthy of respect, dignity, + equal rights