BIO 212 Final Exam

Meiosis 1

Separates homologous chromosomes, reducing the chromosome number by half and creating genetic diversity through crossing over

Meiosis 2

Separates sister chromatids, similar to mitosis, but in cells that are 

already haploid

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between non-sister 

chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of alleles in the gametes.

End result of Meiosis

Four genetically unique haploid cells (These cells have half the number of chromosomes as the original diploid cells, in humans this process produces gametes (sperm and egg cells))

Prophase I

Chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis), and crossing over (exchange of genetic material) occurs.(46 Chromosomes)

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosome pairs line up at the cell's equator. (46 Chromosomes)

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles. Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids. (46 Chromosomes)

Telophase I

Nuclear membranes may reform, and the cell divides (cytokinesis), resulting in two haploid daughter cells. (46 Chromosomes)

Prophase II

Chromosomes condense again. (23 Chromosomes)

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line up at the equator of each daughter cell. (23 

Chromosomes)

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles. (46 

Chromosomes)

Telophase II

Nuclear membranes reform, and cytokinesis occurs, resulting in a 

total of four haploid daughter cells (gametes). (46 Chromosomes)

Number of Chromosomes at end of Meiosis 1

23

Number of Chromosomes at end of Meiosis 2 (separated cells)

23

Ovaries

Primary female reproductive organs, responsible for producing eggs 

(ova) and the hormones estrogen and progesterone

Fallopian Tubes

 Transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization 

typically occurs here.

Uterus

AKA the womb, provides a space for the fertilized egg to implant and 

develop into a fetus during pregnancies.

Cervix

The lower, narrow part of the uterus that connects to the vagina

Vagina

The canal that connects the cervix to the outside of the body.

Labia Majora/Minora

These folds of skin protect the vaginal opening and urethra

Clitoris

A sensitive organ located at the top of the vulva, involved in sexual  arousal

Testis

Primary reproductive organs, responsible for producing sperm and 

testosterone

Scrotum

 A sac that holds the testes and helps regulate their temperature, 

which is crucial for sperm production.

Epididymis

A coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored before 

ejaculation

Vas Deferens

A tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the 

ejaculatory ducts.

Seminal Vesicles

Produce a fluid rich in fructose, which provides energy for 

sperm

Prostate Gland

Secretes fluid that nourishes and protects sperm

Bulbourethral Glands

Produce a fluid that lubricates the urethra and 

neutralizes acidity

Ejaculatory Ducts

Formed by the union of the vas deferens and seminal 

ducts, they carry semen to the urethra

Male Urethra

A tube that carries both urine and semen out of the body

Penis

The external organ involved in sexual intercourse and urination

Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes or Oviducts)

Two narrow tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus. Function-Egg Transport, Fertilization, Embryo Transport, mmune Barrier

Uterus (Tubular Structure)

A hollow, pear-shaped, muscular organ situated in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. Function-Pregnancy, Menstruation, Childbirth

Vagina (Tubular Structure)

A muscular, elastic tube connecting the cervix to the outside of the body. Function-Birth Canal, Sexual Intercourse, Menstruation, Protection

Female Urethra (Tubular Structure)

A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. Function-Eliminate urine from the body.

Seminiferous Tubules

Found within the testes. Function-Primary site of spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells within these tubules support and nourish the developing sperm

Epididymis (Tubular Structure)

A long, coiled tube located behind each testicle. Function-Sperm 

Maturation, Sperm Storage, Fluid Absorption and Recycling

Vas Deferens (Tubular Structure)

Muscular tube that extends from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity and loops behind the bladder. Function-Transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in preparation for ejaculation.

Ejaculatory Ducts (Tubular Structure)

 Formed by the union of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles within the prostate gland. Function-Transport sperm from the vas deferens and secretions from the seminal vesicles into the urethra.

Male Urethra(Tubular Structure)

Tube that extends from the bladder through the penis to the outside 

of the body. Function-Urination, Ejaculation

Layers of the Uterus

Endometrium: Innermost layer, lines the uterine cavity, Implantation site for a fertilized egg, nourishes the developing embryo during pregnancy, and sheds during menstruation if pregnancy doesn’t occur.

Myometrium: Middle and thickest layer, Provides the force for uterine 

contractions during menstruation, labor, and childbirth

Perimetrium: Outermost layer, Protective layer, reduces friction, and helps maintain the uterus’s position in the pelvis.

Male Hormone FSH

Secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland, Plays a crucial role in sperm 

production and testicular development

Male Hormone LH

Secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland, Stimulates the testes to produce testosterone

Male Hormone Inhibin

Secreted by Sertoli Cells of the testes, Regulates spermatogenesis by 

inhibiting the release of FSH from the pituitary gland

Male Hormone GnRH

Secreted by neurons in the hypothalamus, Initiates and regulates the 

male reproductive system

Male Hormone Testosterone

Secreted by the testes, Plays a vital role in the development of reproductive organs, muscle growth, and the maintenance of bone density

Female Hormone FSH

Secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland, Regulates the menstrual cycle and stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles, which contain immature eggs

Female Hormone LH

Secreted by the Pituitary Gland, Regulates the menstrual cycle and triggers ovulation

Female Hormone Inhibin

Secreted by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle and the corpus luteum, Regulates FSH secretion

Female Hormone GnRH

Secreted by neurons in the Hypothalamus, Regulates the menstrual cycle fertility by controlling the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland

Female Hormone Progesterone

Secreted by the Corpus Luteum, Thickens the uterine lining for potential implantation, maintains that lining during pregnancy, and prepares the breasts for milk production

Female Hormone Estrogen

Secreted by the ovaries, Regulates the menstrual cycle and plays a crucial role in reproductive development and function

Zygote

Fertilized egg that results from the union of a female gamete (egg, or ovum) with a male gamete (sperm)

Zona Pellucida

An extracellular matrix that surrounds eggs and early embryos

Morula

A solid ball of cells resulting from division of fertilized ovum, and from which a blastula is formed

Oogenesis

The production or development of an ovum

Spermatogenesis

The production or development of a mature spermatozoa

Allantois

Extraembryonic membrane that forms as a sac-like extension of the hindgut. Plays a crucial role in the formation of the umbilical cord, placenta, and the urinary bladder

Amnion

The innermost extraembryonic membrane that surrounds the fetus and contains the amniotic fluid

Foramen Ovale

A temporary opening between the heart’s upper chambers that allows the blood to bypass the lungs

Embryo

The developing organism from the time of fertilization until the end of the eighth week of pregnancy

Fetus

A developing human organism from the ninth week of gestation until birth

Ovulation

The release of a mature egg from the ovary

Human Gestation

The period of development of a baby within the mother’s womb, beginning at conception and ending with birth

Punnett Square

Diagram used in genetics to predict the probability of different genotype and phenotype combinations in offspring from a cross between two parents with known genotypes

Sex-Linked Diseases

Genetic disorders caused by genes located on the sex chromosomes, primarily the X chromosome

Dominant Traits

Characteristics that are expressed even when only one copy of the dominant allele is present in an organism's genotype

Recessive Traits

Characteristics that only manifest in an organism when it inherits two copies of the recessive allele for a particular gene, one from each parent

Primary Oocyte

Formed in the fetal ovaries during fetal development (specifically, before birth)

Secondary Oocyte

Formed within the ovaries of a female, specifically during the process of oogenesis, which begins at puberty and continues throughout the reproductive years. Fertilized by the sperm in the ampulla of the fallopian tube

Embryonic Period

Lasts from the third week to the eighth week after fertilization. The developing embryo undergoes rapid development and differentiation of its major organ systems and external structures. Particularly sensitive to substances that can cause birth defects.

Fetal Period

Begins around the ninth week after fertilization and continues until birth. The fetus experiences significant growth and refinement of its organs and systems, preparing for life outside the womb.

Genital Herpes

Caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), Transmission 

occurs through contact with the virus in the saliva, genital fluids, or skin of an infected person

HPV

Caused by viral infection transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, most 

commonly through sexual activity

Syphilis

Caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum

Gonorrhea

Caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhea

Chlamydia

Caused by Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria

Fraternal Twins

When two separate eggs are released during ovulation and are fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two distinct zygotes

Identical Twins

When a single fertilized egg (zygote) splits into two separate embryos

Umbilical arteries

Carry deoxygenated, nutrient-depleted blood away from the fetus and towards the placenta

Umbilical Veins

Carry oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to the fetus

Placental Functions

Nutrient and Waste Exchange, Gas Exchange, Endocrine Function, Immunological Function, Waste Removal, Metabolic Functions, Protection, Preparing the mother’s body