language and gender

dale spender

220 sexual names for women and only 20 for men. sexual inequality

murial shutz

there are more negative nicknames for women that are used by men

lexical asymmetry

meaning behind female words have changed to more negative connotations but not male words

julia stanley

negative semantic space for women

anne bodine

androcentric language. language favours men

dominance approach

women use language in a way which reflects their subordinate position in society and men in a which reflects their power

difference approach

men and women belong to different sub-cultures because they are socialised differently in childhood

zimmerman and west

men are more likely to interrupt. men used 46 interruptions but women only 2

o’barr and atkins

language differences are situation-specific based on who has authority

esther greif

study with parents and preschool children

pamela fishman

conversation between the sexes sometimes fail because of how men respond or don’t respond

political correctness

if you change discriminatory language then people’s attitudes might change too

deficit theory

women’s language is inherently weak

pilkington

women are more likely to use inclusive pronouns, support each other

o’barr and atkins

court case. women who were professionals didn’t use female language