Learners and Learning Science

Brainstem

part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord; oversees important jobs like keeping the heart beating regularly, controlling breathing, managing blood flow, and controlling automatic actions like sneezing and swallowing

Limbic System

deep in the brain, it is like an emotional control center helping handle feelings like happiness, fear, and sadness

Cerebellum

located at the back of the head, the "little brain" helps control voluntary muscle movements, posture, and balance

Cerebrum

the front part of the brain responsible for controlling movement, body temperature, and thinking skills like speaking, problem-solving, and decision-making; it also handles sensory tasks like seeing, hearing, and feeling touch

Prefrontal Cortex

plays a crucial role in decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation

Encoding

the initial processing of information, converting sensory input into a form that the brain can store and use

Storage

involves retaining encoded information over time

Feedback

provides information about performance, guiding future actions to refine learning strategies

Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's thinking processes to monitor and regulate learning

Neuroplasticity

recognizes and celebrates diversity in neural functioning and cognitive styles

Neurodiversity

recognizes and celebrates diversity in neural functioning and cognitive styles

Cognitive style

an individual's typical or habitual way of problem-solving, thinking, perceiving, and remembering

cognitive rigidity

cognitive abilities become rigid and fixed as people age

embodied mind perspective

connection between the body, mind, and environment

Humanism

nurturing students' overall well-being, self-esteem, and sense of belonging

sensorimotor

Infants (0-2 years old) explore through senses and actions, developing an understanding of object permanence and laying cognitive foundations

object permanence

the understanding that something still exists even though it cannot be seen or heard

trust versus mistrust

Infants learn to rely on caregivers for their basic needs, fostering trust—while inconsistency in meeting these needs can lead to mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety about their environment.

autonomy versus shame/doubt

The shame and doubt stage involves a child's journey toward independence and decision-making

sensory exploration

involves activities that engage the senses—touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste—helping children explore and understand the world around them

fine motor skills

involve tiny muscles working with the brain and nervous system to control movements in areas like the hands, fingers, lips, tongue, and eyes

initiative versus guilt stage

Children between ages three and six display increased assertiveness by taking the lead in play and engaging in social interactions more actively

preoperational stage

children between the ages of two and seven years old think symbolically, using symbols to represent words, objects, images, individuals, and concepts, enabling the capacity to mimic behavior through imitation

egocentric

demonstrating a cognitive inclination where individuals find it challenging to acknowledge perspectives beyond their own

scaffolding

when the teacher breaks down complex concepts into small, more manageable steps helping children along the way

conservation

understanding that certain physical attributes of objects—such as quantity, mass, volume, and number—remain constant even when their appearance or arrangement changes

industry versus inferiority stage

Children between the ages 5 and 12 develop a growing sense of competence and accomplishment as they develop a greater understanding of their capabilities and limitations

concrete operational stage

In children between ages 7 and 11, thinking becomes more logical, organized, and systematic

reversibility

to mentally undo actions or operations; allows individuals to understand that certain processes can be reversed to return to their original state

classification

to categorize objects, events, or concepts based on common attributes or characteristics, enabling children to organize and make sense of their environment

puberty

typically occurs between ages 12 and 17; changes such as the development of secondary sexual characteristics, growth spurts, and alterations in body composition

identity versus role confusion stage

Adolescents between the ages of 12-17 engage in the exploration and formation of personal identity, including values, beliefs, and aspirations

formal operational stage

In adolescents between ages 12 and 17, thinking becomes more abstract, complex, and systematic

behaviorism

sheds light on how external stimuli shape behavior, emphasizing the focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes

classical conditioning

illustrates how associations between stimuli can lead to learned responses

operant conditioning

demonstrates how behaviors are strengthened or weakened

reinforcement

increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated

punishment

decreases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring

direct instruction

a teacher-led traditional behaviorist teaching strategy

cognitivism

seeks to understand the internal processes involved in learning, such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making

mental schemas

cognitive frameworks that help people organize and interpret information

Bloom's revised taxonomy

a framework that categorizes educational objectives into six levels of cognitive complexity: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating

elaboration

the addition of details

information processing theory

a key component of cognitivism that focuses on understanding the mental processes involved in learning and cognition

constructivism

a prominent theory in education combining cognitive and social elements emphasizing active learning, student-centered instruction, and the construction of knowledge through personal experiences and interactions

self-directed learning

taking self-directed control of learning, setting goals, finding resources, and solving problems independently

discovery learning

learning by exploring and independently resolving challenges, using curiosity and problem-solving skills to discover new ideas and concepts

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with guidance and support

more knowledgeable other (MKO)

the teacher or a peer; a person who possesses more knowledge or expertise than the learner and provides assistance and guidance within the ZPD

social constructivism

underscores the interplay between individual cognition and social factors in shaping learning; complements the emphasis on social interaction by highlighting the role of observational learning and modeling in knowledge acquisition

acquisition

learning new information by actively paying attention and engaging with the material

consolidation

organizing and reinforcing new information by connect it to what you already know and practicing it to better remember it

short-term memory (STM)

a mental space that temporarily holds a small amount of information for a short time, usually a few seconds to a minute

long-term memory (LTM)

the storage of information for a long time, including knowledge, skills, and experiences

neuroscience

the study of the brain and nervous system

cognition

thinking activities such as remembering, understanding, problem-solving, and decision-making, including how people get, use, and store information in their minds

neurons

tiny cells in the brain that work together like an extensive communication network

neurodevelopment

plays a crucial role in acquiring new knowledge, honing cognitive skills, and adapting to the challenges of formal education

Retrieval

the process of accessing stored information when needed

retrieval practice

enhances long-term retention by actively recalling information from memory

Spacing

strategically spacing out study sessions over time leads to more robust learning outcomes

Interleaving

mixing different topics or skills within a single study session promotes deeper understanding and transfer of knowledge

feedback-driven metacognition

monitor and regulate learning processes to foster greater self-awareness and learning autonomy

desirable difficulty

introducing challenges or obstacles during learning to cultivate resilience and enhance overall

learning science

investigates how people learn, encompassing psychology, neuroscience, education, and computer science to understand the cognitive processes, behaviors, and environments that facilitate learning and knowledge acquisition

research-based practices

arise from solid empirical research or methods shown to positively affect classroom learning

evidence-based practices

practices informed by evidence from studies conducted in educational research and learning science

executive function

the set of mental skills that help individuals plan, focus their attention, and remember instructions successfully

cramming

the practice of studying intensively in a short period before an exam

multitasking

the ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously

hippocampus

a part of the limbic system involved in memory, learning, and emotion

distributed practice

explores how the brain retains information when learning is spread out over time rather than condensed

tabula rasa

the human mind is essentially empty at birth

growth mindset

when a person believes in the power of effort and resilience

fixed mindset

when a person sees abilities as unchangeable

differentiated instruction

recognizes that every student is unique and tailors teaching to individual needs, interests, and readiness levels

multisensory learning

engages different senses to deepen students' learning experiences

social and emotional learning (SEL)

equips students with the skills and competencies to navigate the complexities of life

information processing theory

fundamental concepts for understanding brain function, such as sensory input, working memory, and long-term memory

embodied mind perspective

connection between the body, mind, and environment