POSC - Exam 3

Party coalitions and party systems

Party coalitions are groups of voters and interests that support a political party, while party systems refer to the pattern of competition and cooperation between parties over time. In the U.S., the two-party system has seen several realignments, such as the shift of Southern whites from the Democratic to Republican coalition after the Civil Rights era. These concepts are important because they shape electoral outcomes and policy priorities. They also influence how responsive a party is to different segments of the population

Responsiveness as a legislative foal

Responsiveness refers to a legislator's efforts to reflect and respond to the preferences of their constituents. This goal emphasizes democratic accountability and can be seen in actions like supporting popular local policies or voting according to public opinion. While it strengthens representation, it can sometimes conflict with long-term national interests. For example, a representative might support fossil fuel subsidies due to local demand, even if it's environmentally harmful.

Responsibility as a legislative goal

Responsibility means pursuing policies that promote the long-term national interest, even if they are unpopular in the short term. This goal can lead lawmakers to take tough stands on complex issues, like entitlement reform or climate policy. It often requires sacrificing political popularity for the sake of good governance. Legislators face a tension between responsibility and responsiveness, especially during reelection campaigns.

The “two congresses” dynamic/theory

This theory refers to the dual roles members of Congress play: one as national lawmakers and the other as local representatives. Voters often dislike Congress as an institution but approve of their individual representatives because of this dynamic. For example, while people criticize congressional gridlock, they still reelect incumbents who bring resources to their districts. This split contributes to high reelection rates despite low overall approval.

Pork

"Pork" refers to government spending allocated for localized projects secured by legislators to benefit their constituents, often criticized as wasteful. Pork-barrel spending can help representatives build support at home by delivering tangible benefits. However, it may lead to inefficient resource use or favoritism. An example would be funding for a local bridge that primarily serves a small district but costs millions in federal dollars.

Filibuster and cloture vote

A filibuster is a Senate tactic where a senator extends debate to delay or block a vote on a bill. Ending a filibuster requires a cloture vote, which currently needs 60 senators. This rule gives the minority party significant power in the Senate, often leading to legislative gridlock. The filibuster is controversial because it can block popular legislation, such as voting rights reforms, even with majority support.

Congressional standing committees

Standing committees are permanent legislative panels in the House and Senate that handle bills related to specific policy areas, like education or defense. They play a central role in drafting legislation, holding hearings, and overseeing executive agencies. Members often seek assignments that align with their district's interests. These committees increase efficiency and expertise but may also concentrate power among senior lawmakers.

Credit-claiming

Credit-claiming is when politicians highlight their role in securing benefits for their constituents, aiming to boost their reputation and chances of reelection. This often involves taking credit for passing legislation or bringing federal funding to a district. It reinforces the "Two Congresses" dynamic, where members focus on personal accomplishments to please local voters. For instance, a representative may emphasize their role in securing disaster relief funds.

Position-taking

Position-taking is when a legislator publicly states their stance on an issue, often to show alignment with constituents or party values. It doesn't always lead to concrete action but helps build a lawmaker’s image. For example, voting on symbolic resolutions or making public statements on social media reflects this behavior. It can strengthen voter trust or polarize opinion, depending on the context.

Incumbent versus partisan gerrymander

An incumbent gerrymander redraws districts to protect current officeholders, while a partisan gerrymander favors one political party over another. Both manipulate district boundaries to influence electoral outcomes, undermining democratic fairness. Partisan gerrymandering has been used to give Republicans or Democrats disproportionate legislative power. These practices often result in less competitive elections and reduced accountability.

Floor theory of election spending

This theory suggests there is a minimum level of spending necessary for a candidate to run a viable campaign and be competitive. Spending below this "floor" may result in low visibility and poor performance. The theory supports arguments for public funding or spending caps to ensure fair competition. It emphasizes that while more money can help, having too little is a bigger disadvantage.

Treaty power

The treaty power allows the president to negotiate international agreements, but treaties must be ratified by a two-thirds vote in the Senate. This constitutional check ensures shared responsibility in foreign policy. Treaties can cover defense, trade, or environmental issues, such as the START arms reduction treaty. The high threshold for ratification makes it hard to pass controversial treaties.

Pardon power

The president has the constitutional authority to forgive individuals for federal crimes, wiping out the legal consequences. This power is absolute and cannot be overturned, though it only applies to federal offenses. Presidents have used it controversially, such as Gerald Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon. While intended for mercy and justice, it can be seen as undermining accountability.

Formal versus informal powers

Formal powers are those explicitly granted in the Constitution, like vetoing legislation or commanding the military. Informal powers arise from tradition, precedent, or political skill, such as negotiating with Congress or using media influence. Informal powers often expand presidential influence beyond constitutional limits. For example, executive agreements and agenda-setting are informal yet impactful.

“High crimes and misdemeanors”

This phrase refers to serious abuses of power that can justify impeachment of federal officials, including the president. It is intentionally vague, allowing Congress discretion in interpretation. Past impeachments involved obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and lying under oath. Its ambiguity sparks debate over what constitutes grounds for removal.

Executive orders

Executive orders are directives issued by the president to manage operations of the federal government. They have the force of law but do not require congressional approval. Presidents use them to quickly implement policies, such as Biden’s order rejoining the Paris Climate Agreement. However, they can be overturned by future presidents or challenged in court.

Neustadt’s power to persuade” or bargaining

Political scientist Richard Neustadt argued that presidential power mainly lies in the ability to persuade others, especially Congress and bureaucrats. Since formal powers are limited, success often depends on negotiation, coalition-building, and political capital. For example, Lyndon Johnson used persuasion to pass civil rights legislation. This view emphasizes leadership skills over constitutional authority.

Kernell’s “going public” theory

Kernell’s theory suggests that presidents can influence policy by appealing directly to the public, hoping citizens will pressure Congress. This strategy bypasses traditional bargaining and relies on media and public opinion. Ronald Reagan effectively used this approach during his presidency. While it can build support, it may increase political polarization.

Unitary actor advantage

This concept refers to the president's ability to act decisively and consistently, unlike Congress, which consists of many members with conflicting interests. It gives the executive an edge in foreign policy and emergencies. For example, quick military responses are easier with a single decision-maker. However, it can raise concerns about unchecked power.

First-mover advantage

In foreign policy, the president often acts first—by sending troops or initiating treaties—forcing Congress to react. This gives the executive branch control over the agenda and outcomes. For instance, once troops are deployed, it’s politically hard for Congress to defund the mission. This advantage can shift the balance of power toward the presidency.

Rally ‘round the flag effect

This effect describes a surge in public support for the president during national crises, especially at the beginning of military conflicts. It often boosts approval ratings and can temporarily expand executive power. George W. Bush experienced this after 9/11. However, the effect usually fades as the crisis unfolds or public skepticism increases.

Many functions of political parties

Political parties serve to organize elections, unify diverse interests, facilitate governance, and provide a framework for political participation.

Party coalitions

are alliances of different political groups that work together to achieve common goals, often influencing elections and policy-making.

Party systems

Political party systems refer to the structured interaction between political parties within a political landscape, influencing governance and electoral dynamics.

Realignment

is a significant shift in political party allegiance or the political landscape, often resulting in long-term changes in party support and voting behavior.

New Deal Coalition

a coalition of diverse groups that supported Franklin D. Roosevelt's policies in the 1930s, reshaping American politics.

Responsiveness

the ability of political parties to adapt to public preferences and changing social conditions.

Responsibility

the obligation of political parties and elected officials to act in the best interest of their constituents and to be held accountable for their actions.

Burke reading on responsibility

the concept that political leaders and parties are accountable for their actions and must act in the best interest of their constituents.

Senate versus house structure and design

A comparison of the United States Senate and House of Representatives, focusing on their distinct roles, powers, and organizational structures.

Delegate, trustee, and politico styles or representation

are three distinct approaches that elected officials use when making decisions, balancing their own judgment with the preferences of their constituents.

Congressional leaders and agenda setting

The process by which congressional leaders influence legislative priorities and determine which issues to address in Congress.

Standing committees in congress

permanent committees that handle specific areas of legislation, overseeing proposed laws and policies.

The 17th amendment

modified the Constitution to allow direct election of United States Senators by the voters instead of by state legislatures.

Filibusters and cloture

Procedural tactics used in the Senate to extend debate or end it, respectively.

Mayhew’s Electoral Connection

a theory that emphasizes how members of Congress focus on re-election, influencing their behavior and decisions in office.

Casework

the assistance provided by congressional representatives to constituents in their dealings with government agencies.

Congressional leaders and agenda setting powers

are the roles played by party leaders in Congress to shape legislation and direct discussions, influencing which bills come to the floor for a vote.

Credit-claiming

the process by which legislators actively seek to generate a favorable reputation among constituents by taking credit for government benefits.

Pork

government spending for local projects to benefit constituents.

Advertising

the practice of legislators using various forms of communication to promote their visibility among constituents and enhance their public image.

Position-taking

the act of expressing public statements or votes on issues to showcase a legislator's stance and appeal to constituents.

“Two Congresses” concept

The idea that members of Congress represent two constituencies: the national legislature and their local district. This dual role influences their decision-making and priorities.

Conference committees

temporary panels formed to reconcile differences in legislation passed by both chambers of Congress before it is sent to the President.

Key steps in the Bill to Law process

A series of stages and procedures that a proposed bill undergoes in Congress before it is enacted into law.

Incumbency advantages - House

Factors that give current officeholders an edge over challengers, including name recognition, access to campaign funds, and established constituent relationships.

Gerrymander, different types

strategic boundary drawing to influence electoral outcomes, including packing and cracking.

Incumbency advantages - everyone

refers to the benefits that current officeholders have over challengers in elections, including greater name recognition, access to campaign finance, and established networks.

“Floor theory” of money and Congressional elections

suggests that incumbents have a baseline level of financial support that allows them to win elections with less effort compared to challengers, relying on established donor networks.

Presidential design: energy and unity

the concept that a president's design should create a sense of energy and unity within Congress, influencing legislative processes and outcomes.

Formal versus informal presidential powers

refers to the distinction between powers explicitly granted by the Constitution or law (formal) and those derived from the president's role and influence (informal).

Veto power

the explicit authority of the president to reject legislation passed by Congress, requiring a two-thirds majority in both chambers for an override.

Treaty power

the authority of the president to negotiate and enter into treaties with foreign nations, subject to ratification by a two-thirds vote of the Senate.

Pardon power

the constitutional authority of the president to forgive individuals for federal crimes, effectively absolving them from punishment.

Impeachment

the process by which a sitting president or other federal officials may be charged with misconduct and removed from office following a trial in the Senate.

Development of institutional/modern presidency

Refers to the evolution of the presidential office in the United States, characterized by an expansion of roles, responsibilities, and powers, particularly in the 20th century.

Executive orders

Directives issued by the President to manage the operations of the federal government.

Neustadt’s “power to persuade” or bargaining

is the idea that a president's power relies significantly on their ability to negotiate and influence other political actors, rather than solely on formal authority.

Kernell’s theory of “going public”

The strategy whereby a president seeks to influence public opinion and rally support for their policies by directly communicating with the public rather than negotiating with Congress.

Presidential Cabinet

a group of the President's top advisors, including the heads of federal departments and agencies.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

A collection of agencies and offices that directly support the president, advising on various policy areas and implementing presidential decisions.

Wheel and pyramid models for EOP

A framework describing different organizational structures for the Executive Office of the President, where the wheel model emphasizes direct communication between the president and advisors, while the pyramid model features a hierarchical approach with a structured chain of command.

CA governor vs. US president, contrasts

The California governor is the head of the state's executive branch, with powers and responsibilities primarily focused on state governance, while the US president serves as the head of the federal executive branch, overseeing national policies and international relations.

CA’s “plural executive”

A system where executive authority is divided among multiple elected officials, rather than having a single powerful governor, reflecting California's commitment to distributed power in governance.

“Two presidencies” theory

The idea that the U.S. president operates with a distinct approach in foreign policy compared to domestic policy, suggesting they may have more power and flexibility in international affairs.

Vesting clause

A constitutional provision that grants the president executive power, allowing authority to enforce laws and conduct foreign policy.

Prerogative power

The executive powers held by a leader beyond their normal authority, often exercised in times of national emergency or crisis.

Unitary actor advantage

The notion that the president, as a single decision-maker, can respond more quickly and decisively to crises compared to the more deliberative processes involved in congressional decision-making.

First-mover advantage

The advantage gained by being the first to enter a market or adopt a new strategy, often leading to increased market share.

“Rally round the flag” effect

A phenomenon where public support for a leader surges during international crises or conflicts, often resulting in increased approval ratings.

War Powers Act or Resolution

A 1973 federal law that checks the president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of Congress, requiring notification of Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces.