Russian Revolution Identification Terms

Pogrom

Several of these events occurred after assassination of Alexander II in 1881. Alexander III began repressing revolutionists and terrorists, and Jews became subject to these waves of persecution, which were by far the worst of any until that time.

Russification

After 1881 the tsarist empire adopted this kind of program, in which various subject nationalities - Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Caucasus ethnic groups, German communities and Muslims in Central Asia - were all forced to assimilate to the Great Russian culture.

Pobyedonostsyev

This philosopher and chief official of the Russification movement was procurator of the Holy Synod, or layman head of the Russian Orthodox Church. This man saw in the West something alien and doomed, borrowing Burke's attitude about Western rationalism and liberalism. He said Slavs had peculiar national character which should not be westernized and dreamed of a Holy Russia in which churchmen protected Russians from Western influence.

Count Witte

This man was Russia's main reforming minister in the late 19th century. In 1897, Russia went on gold standard. While he was in office, Russia began industrialization seriously, the railway network doubled, telegraph lines quintupled, number of post offices tripled, and trade increased. However, Russia was still dependent on Western machines and chemicals, etc. There were social changes as Middle Class and Working Class began to grow.

Constitutional Democrat Party

This new political party was formed with support from rising professional and business classes with some support also from enterprising landowners. This party formed the liberal segment of public opinion, and their name was shortened to CADETS. Many members of this party were active in provincial zemstvos. It tended to be more interested in politics and policy than in conditions of the workers.

Mir

4/5 Russians lived in this type of village commune. Peasants who lived in one of these had very limited movement and huge burden of redemption payments incurred from Emancipation, as well as steep taxes. Much of food produced from these communities were exported to cities/towns, so little were actually left for these polities. In reality,it was the farm population who was paying heavily for industrialization. There was also a great land hunger at this time. Many of these ended up buying more land to support the population. Many peasants preferred collective security of these communal polities but others sought private enterprise. Those who succeeded on their own, as private farmers, were known as KULAKS.

Social Revolutionary Party

This new political party was founded in 1901 by populist intelligentsia who wanted to elevate the mir and the peasant class and avoid capitalism. This party advocated revolution and was pro-Marxist, but it thought that the peasants in Russia would be the revolutionary class and that it was possible to by-pass the stage of bourgeois capitalism contrary to Marx's original theory. Members of this political party saw Pugachev as their hero. Very POPULIST in orientation - in fact the majority of Russians were still peasants - working on the land, not in industry (see photo p. 724).

Plekhanov and Axelrod

These two Russian populists fled to Switzerland in 1870s, became Marxists and in 1883 founded the RUSSIAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC LABOR (MARXIST) PARTY. Some populists even declared themselves Marxists in Russia, ex. Krupskaya, Lenin's future wife. Many of the populists turned into Marxists in 1890s since peasants were so quiet and industrialization was proceeding so rapidly in Russia that perhaps the revolution might come as Marx had predicted - once Russia had undergone industrialization.

Social Democratic Labor Party

This political party was founded in 1898 by Marxists and spurred on by emigres. It wasn't more revolutionary - but instead just different ideas about the revolution. This party Marxist and pro-world revolution. Many spokesmen of this political party lived in Western Europe in exile. Members though that it was needed to develop capitalism to create proletariat and class struggle before the revolution would come. This party was suspicious of the mir, the peasants, and the Social Revolutionary Party as counterproductive to proletariat revolution. Opposed sporadic violence/terrorism/ and assassinations. For a while the secret police found members of this socialist party less dangerous than the Social Revolutionary Party.

Bolsheviks

This was the name of Lenin's faction at the Second Party Congress in London in 1903, meaning "the majority". They wanted world revolution and overthrow of system rather than attempting to work through the system as the Mensheviks advocated. Differed in organization and tactics. (Hard Marxists)

Mensheviks

This was the name of the other faction at the Second Party Congress in London in 1903, meaning "minority" though actually were numerically greater than the Bolsheviks, but Lenin captured the "majority" term for his group. They were Marxist revisionists, seeking for a more open national socialist party. They wanted influence of members on direction of party and were willing to cooperate with the liberals. (Soft Marxists)

Leninism

Under the direction of the namesake of this movement, in 1912, the Bolsheviks organized themselves into a separate political party, composed of a hard, small, revolutionary elite. Hard core of reliable, zealous workers. This eponymous movement believed in a highly centralized party with strong authority at the top, and no autonomy for national/other groups. Working toward dictatorship of the proletariat. THE NAMESAKE OF THIS MOVEMENT WAS A MARXIST FUNDAMENTALIST. MENSHEVIKS WERE MORE LIKE WESTERN REVISIONIST MARXISTS. That man also developed Marxist theories on imperialism - "Highest Stage of Capitalism", but otherwise added little "new" as theory, but lots as a movement. That man developed the activist role of the party.

Nicholas II

This Tsar since 1894 was known for his narrow outlook. In traditional role of tsar as "Little Father" who thought all criticism was merely childish. Tutored by Pobyedonostsyev with his theories on Russification. He felt that the Church and the autocracy were all Russian and appropriate. His minister, PLEHVE, thought war with Japan would improve people's view of government but proved to be a disaster. This tsar continued to be out of touch with reality, and fell prey to influences such as that of Rasputin. Took over command of army at low point in morale in WW I - went to front, he did honorable thing but it was ineffective. This man eventually surrendered to revolution and was ultimately captured by Bolsheviks who imprisoned his Family in Ekaterinburg and murdered them during the Civil War when Whites were close by.

Father Gapon

This man was a priest in St. Petersburg who was allowed by government to organize workers. The goverment hoped to use this priest as an informer and as someone who could counter the propaganda of the revolutionaries. Instead, however, this man took up for the workers. He helped them list their grievances on a petition to take to the "Little Father" or Tsar, which asked for 8 hour day, minimum wage, constituent assembly.The workers, who were led by this priest, took the petition to Winter Palace to give to tsar who turned out not to be there.

Bloody Sunday

In this event in Jan 1905, workers arrived with a petition at the Winter Palace, only to find that the tsar was not there at the time, and guards ended up firing on the assembly in front of Palace - with bloody results. The Tsar was no longer seen as a friend. This event snapped the moral bond between people and their "Little Father." Autocracy seen as force behind hated officials. Political strikes followed. Social Democrats (more Menshevik at this time) gave revolutionary direction.

Soviets

These were councils of workers formed in Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1905 revolution, and were sponsored by Social Democrats. At the same time, the Constitutional Democrats tried to take control. Both these and the liberals wanted democratic representation in the govt.

St. Petersburg Soviet

In the Fall of 1905, after the Japanese disaster at Tsushima Straits, this soviet, led by the Mensheviks, declared a general strike for the duration of October. That strike spread to other cities and to peasants. Govt paralyzed. Late 1905, order reestablished. Members of this Soviet arrested. Peace made with Japan and troops brought in from the Far East. Revolutionary leaders fled.

October Manifesto

This was issued by the Tsar in a namesake month. This declaration promised a constitution, civil liberties, and a Duma to be elected by all classes with powers to enact laws and control the administration. But, there was division in revoltuionary forces and fear that tsar not sincere. Soviets were seething, strikes continued, mutiny of soldiers at Kronstadt and among sailors in the Black Sea Fleet.

Duma

This the was elected, representative body to advise govt as promised in October Manifesto. This parliament Sat from 1906 to 1916, with the superficial attributes of semi constitutional monarchy. But Nicholas would not allow this body any foreign policy power, the budget or govt personnel. Nicholas' attitude continued to be negative. This parliamentary body was attacked from left and right(political orientations). On the "right" were Black 100s (Orthodox Church sponsored) who were responsible for persecution of the peasantry and the forced boycotting of this. On the "left" were Social Revolutionaries and Social Democrats who refused to recognize this elected body. Voting was divided and unequal. Cadets/Constitutional Democrats got majority. Tsar dismissed this parliament several times. Cadets went to Viborg in Finland. In the second election one of these, in 1907, Socialists were allowed to run and some were elected but the govt was still in control. The Third and Fourth ones of these were ineffectual.

Stolypin

This man was Tsar's principle minister who dismissed 1st and 2nd Dumas. However, he also introduced a number of reforms to attract reasonable and moderate people and build the support of the propertied classes. This man Broadened the provincial zemstvos and freed peasantry of redemption payments. 6.2 million families consequently separated from the mir. This man was assassinated by Social Revolutionaries (like Plehve before him). (Again, nothing more dangerous to a revolutionary than reformer who might make the existing system work.)

Rasputin

This "Holy man" held influence over the tsar and tsarina because of his apparent curing of tsaravich(young royal son and heir) who was a haemophiliac. Rasputin "seemed" capable of stopping the bleeding. The Royal family thought he had special powers, and he started having undue influence on appointments, etc. Added to alienation of people from govt. Rumors that this man was having an affair with the tsarina while tsar away at front in WW I. He was finally assassinated by group of nobles at court in 1916 but only after damage to the reputation of the royal family been done.

Duma Executive Committee

This special government body was established amidst food riots and chaos in Petrograd(St. Petersburg but name changed in WW I because it sounded too German) in 1917. The dismissed Fourth Duma set this governing body up, which was essentially moderate, constitutionalist and relatively legal. Under pressure from the Petrograd Soviet, this governing body set up a Provisional Government under Prince Lvov.

Petrograd Soviet

During the food riots in 1917, this polity was an organization of workers and soldiers' deputies (as in 1905) which represented the revolutionary forces as an upswelling from below. This polity would play a role like that of the Paris Commune in 1792 - i.e. constantly pushing for more nationwide authority and pushing to the Left. This polity became the public auditorium and the administrative center of working class upheaval.

March Revolution

On Mar 8, 1917, in midst of chaos, this event was brought on by the hardships of WW I, and the food riots in the city of Petrograd which led to insurrection and mutiny.

Provisional Government

On Mar 14, 1917 one of these temporary governing bodies was set up by the Duma Executive Council. This governing body allowed in one Social Revolutionary (moderate) named Kerensky and agreed that Nicholas should abdicate and a Russian Republic should be established. It called for elections by universal suffrage.

Prince Lvov

This man was asked to head the Provisional Government of March 14, 1917. Under this man's provisional government, the war effort continued to run into disaster in the battles of 1917. Discipline collapsed completely in the army.

Alexander Kerensky

This man was a moderate, legal-minded, Socialist Revolutionary. He was the only one from his party who allowed into Provisional Govt by Duma Executive Council as a concession to the Soviet. He replaced Prince Lvov as head of the Provisional Govt, but was then himself threatened from the political right by Kornilov.

General Kornilov

This man was a right-wing, newly appointed military commander. He sent cavalry to restore order in Petrograd. However, his troops were defeated by Bolsheviks and revolutionary minded soldiers. Radicals denounced liberals as this military general's accomplices and both blamed Kerensky. Meanwhile, conditions deteriorated.

Constituent Assembly

Kerensky wanted one of these bodies to write a constitution. But conditions deteriorated such that he had to call a pre-parliament representing all bodies/parties. (Lenin and Bolsheviks boycotted the pre-parliament and called instead for an all-Russian Congress of Soviets. )

When this body finally met in January 1918, 9 million Russians voted in favor of Bolsheviks and 21 million had voted for Social Revolutionaries. So Lenin (who by that time has staged a 2nd revolution, had this body forcibly dispersed.

November Revolution

At the beginning of this event, Lenin said that it was time to make a move. (other Bolsheviks, Kamenev and Zinoviev, said no) On November 6-7, 1917, Bolsheviks seized the telephone exchange in Petrograd and then took over railways and electric power. During this event, many troops went over to the side of the Bolsheviks, and the warship, AURORA, in the harbor turned its guns toward the Winter Palace where Kerensky's government sat.

Congress of Soviets

This meeting, hastily assembled in November 1917, dissolved the Provisional Government and declared that a Council of People's Commissars would replace it. During this meeting, Lenin made 2 resolutions/promises: "just, democratic peace" and "abolition of all landlord property" -> cry went out for "Peace, Land and Bread."

Council of People's Commissars

This temporary governing body was established by the Congress of Soviets, with Lenin at the head and Trotsky as Commissar for Foreign Affairs, Stalin as Commissar for Nationalities. Kerensky fled to the U.S. where he finally died of natural causes in 1970.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Early in 1918(March) Bolsheviks signed this agreement with the Germans and gave up the Baltic Provinces, Ukraine and Poland for peace with Germany - effectively abandoning the Russian conquests of 2 centuries. But Lenin said it made no difference since eventually all of Europe would have its proletarian revolution. However, the "peace" brought about by this treaty would be short-lived as Russia headed for civil war.

CHEKA

This acronym stood for the Extraordinary All Russian Commission of Struggle Against Counterrevolution, Speculation and Sabotage. This was the first institution set up by the new regime, Dec of 1917. The name changed over years, and was known at different times as OGPU, NKVD, MVD and most recently as the KGB. This organization carried out the RED TERROR in civil war. "Justice" or retribution was carried out without tribunal. Series of summer executions. THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY TERROR PALED BY COMPARISON!

Red Army

This military was formed in January of 1918, under Leon Trotsky, War Commissar and creator of army. This military was "forged in crucible of civil war." Discipline was very strict and scattered throughout the army were POLITICAL COMMISSARS to educate the soldiers on the principles of the Bolshevik revolution and keep everyone in line (politically). Some members of this military also acted as spies and reported any counterrevolutionary comments or activities. Army was very well organized, boosted morale of men and practiced good officer selection. Big contrast to tsarist army. With the help of this patriotic military group, the Bolsheviks had established themselves back up to the borders of the Tsarist Empire in all directions except towards Europe.

Leon Trotsky

This man was son of a wealthy Jewish kulak and a leading Bolshevik. This man became Commissar for Foreign Affairs under Lenin, and negotiated the Brest Litovsk Treaty. He is also known as the Founder of the Red Army, where he was very popular. This man would later on come into conflict with Stalin and was ultimately exiled. He mysteriously died in Mexico, and is strongly suspected to have been assassinated under Stalin's orders.

White Armies

This term describes the French, British, American, Japanese and Czech armies as well as anti-Bolshivist Russians who tried to overthrow the revolution. Fronts in the Civil War between this and the Red Army were to the North at Archangel and Murmansk, and to the East at Vladivostok. During that Civil War, the Ukrainian, Armenian, Georgian, and Azerbaijani nationalities proclaimed independence. The many components of this conglomeration of military forces could not unite. Right wing elements even carried out a "WHITE TERROR" on peasants, and the allied forces couldn't agree on common strategy.

Kronstadt Mutiny

This rebellion of sailors, soldiers, and civilians rose in 1921 against party domination of the Soviets (a la Herbertists in the French Revolution) but was branded as a petty bourgeois uprising and the participants were shot by the thousands.

Admiral Kolchak

This man was the Leader of White Army in E. Siberia, and he proclaimed himself leader of all Russia. He was eventually defeated by the Red Army after much effort.

Soviet Republics

Examples of these polities include the Russian S.F.S.R., Ukrainian S.S.R., Byelorussian S.S.R. and the Transcaucasian S.F.S.R. (included Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) All four of these polities together constituted the U.S.S.R. The name Russia was dropped to help the nationalities feel more recognized, although, in reality, Russia or the R.S.F.S.R. still dominated.

Russian SFSR

This polity was one of first four members of the U.S.S.R. which was formed officially in 1922. The borders of this polity extended to Siberia and the Pacific, and it Constitutied 1/2 the population an 3/4 of the territory of the U.S.S.R. It was considered the first step to the World S.S.R. but in practice, in time, this polity dominated over the others.

Supreme Soviet

This bicameral legislature of the Soviet Union was established by the Constitution in 1936. Its upper chamber was known as the Soviet of Nationalities and the lower chamber as the Soviet of the Union (1 representative for 300,000 of population).

Soviet of Nationalities

This legislative chamber in the Supreme Soviet, established by 1936, represented the various autonomous republics, autonomous regions and cultural districts in the USSR.

Council of People's Commissars

This body was the highest authority of the executive branch, and the Ministry in the State apparatus of the government. Soviets chose executives for this body.

Central Committee of the Communist Party

This group formed the top of Communist Party. Had 70 members in 1930 and increased thereafter.

General Secretary

This was an office in the Communist Party, created by Stalin for himself, which came to dominate the entire structure of the party. Power and authority flowed from the top down. Had authority over appointments and assignments at all levels.

Politburo

This was the political bureau of about 12 members who dominated the discussion on policy and leading personnel within the Central Committee

Kulak

These wealthier, independent farmers who had gradually emerged after Emancipation and were independent of the Mir were favored by Lenin's New Economic Policy which was in effect from 1921 to 1927. This rural social class and the NEP were necessary to restore trade between city and country areas and maintain sufficient food supply for everyone. These farmers and middlemen profited at this time. Lenin recognized that attempts towards socialism had been too rapid and costly before he established the N.E.P. NEP also fostered a new proletariat, who were wage-earners working for this social class and bourgeois middlemen. The existence of this social class seemed to contravene the notions of a classless society, but was a practical solution to the economic chaos of the days following WWI, the Revolution and the Civil War.

Permanent Revolution

Trotsky formulated this political theory after seeing the NEP as a compromise of Communist principles. In this theory, Trotsky felt that there should be an incessant drive for proletarian revolution on all fronts and in all parts of the world. While others wanted to build socialism at home first, Trotsky felt it should be on-going everywhere. As part of this philosophy, Trotsky wanted forceful industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, mass involvement in the party, planned economy. Stalin would oppose Trotsky's policy recommendations. Stalin had Trotsky exiled to Siberia and later banished to Turkey, from where he left for France and then Mexico. Trotsky organized an anti-Stalin underground and wrote about his political ideas from abroad. Stalin finally had him assassinated in Mexico.

First Five Year Plan

This list of economic goals planned rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture between 1928-32- (basic Trotsky) yet appropriated by Stalin. This plan's aim was to enrich, make military and industry self-sufficient and lay groundwork for true worker's society, as well as dispelling the "backward" image that Russia had in world community.

Gosplan

This was the central planning agency set up to administer the Five-Year Plans. Made all the decisions - who produced what, where, where it was distributed, etc. This committee controlled the flow of resources which in a capitalist system would be controlled the laws of supply and demand. In practice, this planning agency and the Five-Year plans were beset with problems of management and bureaucracy.

Collective Farm

The Original Five Year plan called 1/5 of agricultural units to be turned into these, but Stalin revised this in 1929 and said that almost all agriculture should be organized into these. Peasants had to surrender their private property to these agricultural units. These were often a few thousand acres each and most were owned by groups of peasants, though some were state-owned. Peasants no longer owned property but were forced to work collectively on huge farms and struggle to meet production quotas. Many peasants were reluctant to surrender their property and some tried to hide supplies of grain or livestock and slaughtered animals rather than give them up to the state. Process of collectivization brought much misery and conflict to the peasants' mirs.

Liquidation of the Kulaks

Stalin said that these namesake peasants, who had more to give up so were often more reluctant to be collectivized, should be liquidated as a class. In 1929 hundreds of thousands were killed and many others transported to labor camps. This process of collectivization was supposed to turn the proletariat into a manipulable mass but was achieved at cost of class war. Lenin's NEP had encouraged the activities of the Kulaks and before him Stolypin had sought to create a middle class. Now, abruptly, these policies were brutally reversed. At the height of this upheaval, poor harvest resulted in disastrous famine in 1932 in which millions are estimated to have died. (Recall Video) Yet Stalin still pushed for export of grains to finance industrial growth.

Machine Tractor Stations

These were example of the ability to use large amounts of capital acquired by the efforts of members of collective farms to invest in machinery and then share the equipment. These enterprises encouraged mechanization of agriculture, since the individual peasant would not have been in position to purchase high capital items. They were established to distribute machinery throughout the countryside during the First Five Year Plan.

Second Five Year Plan

In some ways less ambitious than the first one of these, this one, from 1933-1938, goal a of national self-sufficiency, especially in heavy industry basic to war production. The first two of these resulted in INCREDIBLE, UNPRECEDENTED INDUSTRIAL GROWTH. 1928-38: iron and steel production X 4; coal X 3 1/2. By 1939 Russia was third in the world (behind U.S. and Germany) in output of these items. AMAZING GROWTH!!!

Stakhanovite

In 1935, this movement, named after a coal miner, was begun by the government in order to encourage increase of daily productivity. The government published the daily output of a namesake coal miner and made a national hero of him. As part of this movement, the government made wages geared to output (piece-rate), which led to competition in different areas. Labor heroes such as the namesake of this movement were an inspiration to others. It was thought that a new and higher stage of socialist competition was being reached. Even factory managers competed. There was a huge pressure to meet the plan's quotas.

Constitution of 1936

Socialism was thought to have proven so successful that a new one of these documents of the USSR was proclaimed. In this document, the rights of the citizen were enumerated. It went beyond civil liberties and involved right to employment, rest, leisure, economic security, comfortable old age. Racism was condemned and direct and equal universal suffrage was assured. History would prove that this, in many ways, was mainly a hollow sham. At same time liberties were being proclaimed on paper, Stalin and party were tightening their grip and a time of internal troubles was to follow.

Kirov

This man was an old friend and revolutionary companion of Stalin since 1909 and was very popular with the workers and soldiers in Petrograd/Leningrad. He showed signs of appealing to the disaffected, which made Stalin very jealous of him. In 1934, this Soviet official was assassinated in his office, most probably by an agent of Stalin. Stalin used this man's assassination as an excuse to strike out at Stalin's opponents, real/imagined, and a revival of "terror" ensued. All told, there were about 100+ executions of high-ranking revolutionaries in the 4 year purged that followed. No-one seemed safe. During that time, even Stalin's wife, an old Bolshevik revolutionary herself, was driven to "suicide."

Trotskyists

This group of "Left Bolsheviks" (including Zinoviev and Kamenev), led by a namesake man, opposed Lenin's NEP policy and instead wanted "permanent revolution." They were critical of Stalin's policies. In 1927 Zinoviev and Kamenev were expelled from the Communist party for being these followers of a namesake man. They were later readmitted, having rejected that man's philosophy, but Stalin continued to distrust them and later made them subjects in the purge trials.

Zinoviev

This man Old Bolshevik and leader of Communist party in Petrograd and the head of Comintern. He was expelled from the party for being a follower of Trotsky, but later rejected Trotsky and was readmitted.

Kamenev

This man was an Old Bolshevik and was leader of the Communist party in Moscow. He was expelled from the party for being a follower of Trotsky, but later rejected Trotsky and was readmitted.

Rightists

This term referred to some old Bolshevik revolutionaries still high in the party in the 1930s who suggested a return to more moderate policies of the NEP era. An example of these was Bukharin.

Bukharin

Within the communist party, this man led the moderate group referred to as the "rightists." They were concerned about the effects of collectivization on the people and urged a more gradual approach with greater latitude for small, private business(as in NEP). He was also editor of the official party paper, PRAVDA. Of the old Bolsheviks, he was perhaps the most popular and charismatic. Stalin became jealous and suspicious of him and had him denounced as a "rightist" who wanted to restore bourgeois capitalism. He was put through a purge trial sham and executed in 1938.

Purges and Purge Trials

These events occurred intermittently after the 1936 Kirov assassination. A period of terror set in while 16 old Bolsheviks went to trial as part of these. In one of these, Zinoviev and Kamenev was charged with Kirov's assassination(even though it was really Stalin's agents who had done it). All confessed in open court. We know now that these confessions were extracted through the terror of family members. They were told during these events that the only way to save loved-ones from imprisonment, torture, or death was to confess. Were also "interrogated" for hours by "experts." The following year another 17 old Bolsheviks were subjected to the same these. In the high corridors of power in Moscow and Petrograd it seemed that no-one was safe from these events.

Marshal Tukhachevski

In 1937, this military commander and 7 other generals were accused of Trotskyism and conspiring with the Germans and the Japanese. They were summariliy shot. Purges continued at all levels. KGB disclosed later that from 1930 to 1953, 3 3/4 million people were tried for counterrevolution and of these 3/4 of a million were executed. Many others ended up in prison or gulags(prison/labor camps) where they died.

Revisionism

In this movement among socialists, West European Marxists in late 19th and early 20th centuries came to accept existing states and believed workers lot could be improved through democratic process. (More rigorous Marxists called this "opportunism" and decried it.)

Zimmerwald Program

This program was drawn at a namesake 1915 conference of Anti-war socialists in Switzerland. This pacifist program caled for peace without annexations or indemnities. (Lenin was included at that conference . He saw war as sellout to capitalism and imperialism.) In fact, most other Socialists in W. Europe were NOT anti-war and jumped on the patriotic bandwagon and advised workers to help in war effort.

Zimmerwald Left

After the attendees of a namesake anti-war socialist conference split, some of were referred to by this name. Most of the attendees regarded peace as the aim but these socialists, inspired by Lenin and the Russian emigres, wanted revolution not revisionism. This group of people wanted the war to continue, believing it would hasten the revolution.

Social Democrats

Members of this party in Germany, as well as other socialists in Europe, were favoring the more gradual approach after WW I. For many, the violent revolution that Lenin had fostered was not to be emulated. Even Marxists like Bernstein and Kautsky did not have the stomach for Lenin's methods.

Sparticist Movement

This movement, named after an ancient Roman slave rebellion, was organized by the two Germans Karl Libeknecht and Rosa Luxembourg, who accepted the Bolshevik revolution. In January of 1919, they tried to overthrow the majority socialist government as the Bolsheviks had overthrown the Provisional Govt in November of 1917. Despite, this movement receiving aid from Lenin, it still failed uprising, and the leaders were executed.

Bela Kun

This man was a Hungarian Marxist Fundamentalist. He turned to the Bolsheviks in Russia for help and set up and maintained a Soviet-style regime in Hungary for several months in 1919 until he was overthrown.

First International

This organization of European socialists was established by Karl Marx and first met in the 1860s. Fizzled after failure of Paris Commune in 1871.

Second International

This successor organization of European socialists was founded in 1889, and met every 3 years until 1914 and in a post-war meeting in Berne, 1919. Small minority wanting revolution as in Russia. Moved to Moscow and founded another one.

Third International

The first Congress of this organization of European socialists was convened haphazardly in 1919. A Second Congress in 1920 included the extreme left parties of the 37 countries represented. Parties adhering to Comintern had to drop the word "socialist." The big competition between socialism and communism was realized at the meetings of this organization. Both, after all, were competing for the same support - namely, the working class. The top communists in Russia had powers in the Comintern, led by Zinoviev. The Comintern was abolished in WW II as a gesture of goodwill toward the allies.

Zinoviev Letter

In this correspondence, sent in 1924, the namesake head of the Comintern urged the British workers to provoke revolution in Great Britain. Publication of this correspondence in the British press was a major reason why the Conservative Party won the following election and the fledgling Labor Party lost under Ramsay McDonald.

Twenty-One Points

At the Second Congress of the Comintern, members endorsed this program written by Lenin that included numerous points such as: party committment, repudiate reform socialism, propagandize labor unions, infiltrate, follow order of Comintern, legal and extra-legal methods, expel weak members. Lenin was trying to make the Comintern a weapon for revolution.

Popular Fronts

This term referred to alliances of socialists and advanced liberals, spurred on by the rise of fascism in the mid-30s. Russians advised Communists in Europe to ally with socialists and advanced liberals in these in defense against fascism which had targeted Communists/Socialists.