Historical Roots of Psychology

Name and describe two ideas proposed by the British empiricists that were adopted by Wundt, Tichener or other structuralist psychologists. Provide specific examples from those in the Wundt/Tichener camp. That is, describe how they integrated two ideas from the British
empiricists into their psychology.

One part of empiricism is the idea that knowledge is not innate. The second part is that knowledge is acquired through the senses and through experience.

Wundt had introspection, interacting with the world around them through sensations and perception in order to examine one’s own mental state.

Titchener went on to suggest the idea of Structuralism which springs from the idea of how we individually create relationships with stimuli around us and how the certain parts of the brain have structure for that information.

Name and describe two ideas proposed by the British empiricists that were adopted by behaviorist or proto-behaviorists (aka psychologists. What aspects of British empiricism were adopted by pre-behaviorists (AKA proto behaviorist) and/or behaviorists?

One part of empiricism is the idea that knowledge is not innate. The second part is that knowledge is acquired through the senses and through experience.

Jacques Loeb had the Theory of Tropism: A theory where consciousness could be scaled and that consciousness appeared when an organism has associative memory and can profit from experience.

Edward Thorndike had the theory of trial and error learning, when an animal tries many behaviors before finding one that leads to favorable consequences. Learning through experience.

Name one way that Hume influenced science in general or psychology in particular?

Hume was an empiricist, which means, like Locke, he agreed that the mind acquires knowledge from experiences via the senses and that knowledge is not innate.

How does the psychology practiced by Wundt relate to these concepts: mechanism, determinism, reductionism, dualism, positivism, empiricism, and associationism? If you feel that his psychology rejected or was neutral to any of these, then say so. If you feel that his psychology was strongly influenced by any of these, then say so.

Wundt was a fan of the conscious mind, believing that the mind had basic structures of sensations and feelings. He believed that some things were just too complex to study, however psychology could study lower levels of elements of psychology could be studied. His focus was also on mediate vs immediate experiences and experimentation as well.

It is because of these factors that I think Wundt would’ve been a positivist (the belief that one should only believe something if it has been determined through the methods of science and is observable); Reductionism (reducing everything to it’s basic elements) He and Donders focused on reducing behaviors to numbers in order to create the Subtractive procedure; Due to his complex feelings about the mind and how the consciousness can coincide with the body, I think he’d not only believe in dualism but also associationism and empiricism (due to his work with immediate experiences and the focus on introspection through the senses).

I think he would’ve stayed neutral when it came to determinism, mechanism, as nothing in his research really stands for or against such things.

How does Wundt’s psychology relate to the ideas of A) Descartes, B) the empiricists, and C) the psychophysicists?

Wundt’s psychology relates to the idea of Decartes, because Decartes while still believing that the mind and body were different many human behaviors are not caused by the mind and the soul. Rather that the mind gets sensation from the body and sends signals to muscles. Wundt agrees with this, even focusing some of his research on the perception of sensations.

When it comes to empiricists, Wundt also believes that knowledge is learned through the senses and that knowledge is not innate.

Wundt’s psychology also relates to psychophysicists because he wanted to experiment and believed that “low level” elements of the mind could be studied through experimentation, as we see with the Subtractive Procedure

Why did they call the branch of science started by Weber ‘psychophysics’? Argue that the name ‘psychophysics’ accurately describes that branch of science.

They named it psychophysics because it is a field that explores the relationship between the physical universe and the perception of the physical universe.

Perception is a mental concept, and “psyche,” the root word for psychology, means “the mind.” So it is a combination of how the mental perceives the physical world and stimuli, so the name “psychophysics” works just fine.

Was Fechner a dualist or monist? What sets his view on this issue apart from everyone else that we have studied?

Fechner was a monist, however unlike most of the people we study, Fechner believed that we were only made up of one thing: the mind, the mental. It is because of this that he was a huge spiritualist and most things psychic.

Was Wundt the founder of psychology? Was he the first person to do psychological science?

Wundt did not do the first psychology experiments, nor was he the founder of psychology in the way you think. He was however, the founder of the formal field of psychology and if one wanted to get a psychology degree, you had to get it from him or get it from someone who taught underneath him.

What is Wundt’s definition of mediate experience? Provide an example. What is Wundt’s definition of immediate experience? Provide an example.

A mediate experience is our experience that is outside us. Studied with physics, chemistry etc. Ex: Learning the weight of an object by measuring it.

An immediate experience is our experience of the object/thing that is external to us. It, if done correctly, should be untainted by personal interpretations. This is studied by psychologists. Ex: You look at a coke bottle, what is the first thing you notice.

What was the name of the research method Wundt created to explore the mind? Describe how this method worked. How rigorous was the training for this method?

Introspection: The researcher would present a person with a stimulus. The subject would then respond by stating something about the experience of perceiving that stimulus. These responses should not be taken as information that reveals anything about the quality of the object, rather should be taken into consideration about one’s own perception of the object.

It was very rigorous. To be valid, the introspection had to be repeatable and the response needs to be made quickly.

Over 10,000 training trials required before a person could become an “introspector”

Subjects were also asked for quantitative judgements- such as size, intensity, duration etc.

What is the ‘quantity objection’? If a person believes in the quantity objection, do they think that quantitative measurement of the mind is or is not possible?

The quantity objection is the idea that there is a confusion of the sensation with the stimulus lead to a stimulus-error. If a person were to believe in quantity objection, they would also believe that the mind has no magnitude and is therefore immeasurable.

What are the psychology of datum and the psychology of capacity? What is the stimulus-error?

Psychology of datum: This was Fechner’s and Weber’s psychophysics. This type of psychophysics insists that the mental can be measured.

Psychology of Capacity: Believes that the mind cannot be measured. Tries to understand the relationship between a physical response and the physical stimulus.

Stimulus Error (Quantity objection): is when a stimulus is perceived as different than it actually is. For example, the subject believes that the stimulus is louder than it actually is.

Define Wundt’s concepts of mediate and immediate experience. Give examples of both. Which one did he think was fair game for psychology? Why? What was his method of studying it? (by “it” I mean the one that he thought we could/should study)

A mediate experience is our experience that is outside us. Studied with physics, chemistry etc. Ex: Learning the weight of an object by measuring it.

An immediate experience is our experience of the object/thing that is external to us. It, if done correctly, should be untainted by personal interpretations. This is studied by psychologists. Ex: You look at a coke bottle, what is the first thing you notice.

The reason that the immediate experience is studied by psychology is because there is nothing between us and our perception/experience of the object. The mental, rather than numerical numbers with a space between the object and the stimulus (the space being a scale for example).

His method of studying the immediate experience is what he called introspection.

How did the ideas of Locke influence psychologists and/or psychophysicists?

Locke believed that we were all “blank slates” when we were born and that it is our experiences that influence us and only our experiences. Behaviorism has an emphasis on only how our experiences and environment influence behavior. This is how the ideas of Locke influenced psychologists, because without Locke and others like him, there’s no way to say that Behaviorism might’ve ever become a thing.

Argue that psychophysics was measuring the mind.

Psychophysics measures the mind because it measures the time it takes for the brain to realize there is a new stimulus.

Argue that psychophysics was measuring only behavior.

Psychophysics measures only behavior because it is through the subject’s behavior and reaction towards the stimulus that the psychophysicist can even see that the subject is aware that there is a new stimulus.

Describe how Wundt measured the time it takes for ‘perception’.

In order to measure perception (simple muscular reaction) Wundt used the time between: 1 stimulus, 1 movement, attention to movement, and then the stimulus had been fully perceived. The subtraction would be: 3-2.

Why did Külpe feel that Donders (and those who used Donders’ methods) had failed to find a way to measure the duration of mental actions?

Kulpe felt that Donders methods had failed to find a way to measure the duration of mental actions because the change of condition indicates a change in attitude and therefore a potential change of the entire mental processes. Each step may be unique and may not be composed of an addition of previous steps.

Argue that, prior to behaviorism and the cognitive revolution, psychologists (or psychophysicists) had successfully measured the mind. Tell me what mental aspect they measured, and how they measured it. Make a clear argument that this is an actual example of the mental be measured (as opposed to behavior).

Through the ability of the psychophysicists, we were able to successfully measure the mind through the study of reaction time. Donders first experiment was where he shocked people in either the left or right foot and had them hit the corresponding telegraph key to indicate which foot had been shocked. One time the participant would be warned, another time they wouldn’t. He then compared the two times and subtracted them. This was the first time that the mental mind had been measured.

This showed a clear way of how to measure the mind as it showed just how long it took the brain to realize there was a new stimulus.

Argue that, prior to behaviorism and the cognitive revolution, psychologists had NEVER successfully measured the mind. Discuss one attempt at mental measurement, and say why you think that it ultimately was a failure. The example you choose could both be from
psychology or psychophysics.

Prior to behaviorism and the cognitive revolution psychologists never successfully measured the mind. Donders first experiment was where he shocked people in either the left or right foot and had them hit the corresponding telegraph key to indicate which foot had been shocked. One time the participant would be warned, another time they wouldn’t. He then compared the two times and subtracted them. This was the first time that the mental mind had been measured.

However, it really wasn’t. The mental mind wasn’t being measured here. Rather what was being measured was the person’s behavior and reaction to the stimulus. The mental processes were likely nearly instant, however, the extra time was the person reacting to the stimulus with their body. That is what the psychophysicist is studying. The physical reaction, the behavioral reaction, not the mental.

Boring once said, “Intelligence is what the tests test”. What did Ralph mean when he said that this might be a very stupid statement?

This might be a stupid statement because it tells you nothing you didn’t already know

Boring once said, “Intelligence is what the tests test”. What did Ralph mean when he said that this might be a very insightful statement?

This might be an insightful statement because “intelligence” is subjective. Just because you have the same IQ doesn’t mean the same as having the same height. It only spits out what number it is in relation to what it is testing. Nothing more, nothing less.

Why did fans of mentalistic psychology think that Percy Bridgman’s operationism was a really positive development?

Mentalistic psychologists believed that Bridgeman’s operationism supported the study of the mind, by having a strong scientific and philosophical justification for measuring any mental thing as long as it had an operational definition.

Explain the reaction-time-as-a-mental-measurement vs. reaction-time-is-a-failure-of- mental measurement (i.e. the Donders vs. Külpe) issue. What was the issue? What was the position of each man? What was at stake in the debate?

Donders believed that reaction time (no matter what condition) was a mental measurement. Kulpe on the other hand believed that a change in condition also indicated a potential change in the entire mental process, believing that mental things cannot be reduced to atomic parts. At best, Kulpe argued, that studying reaction time the way Donders was, was an unfounded assumption rather than irrefutable fact.

What was at stake is the belief that we could measure the mental.

What are two reasons put forth in lecture for why measuring the mind may be difficult and/or impossible?

Measuring the mind may be difficult because, when measuring things such as reaction time, something that claims to measure the mental processes of a stimulus, instead you can look at is as studying behavior. The only reason a psychologist would know that you have processed something is based on your reaction, something physical and behavioral, as it is the only part of that study that is observable (during this time period).

Another way that measuring the mind may be difficult is someone’s perception. Perception is a mental thing and changes from person to person and often times isn’t observable, or limitedly observable, which in turn makes it difficult to measure.

Define Donders’/Wundt’s subtractive procedure. Argue that Donders’/Wundt’s subtractive procedure was an innovative and successful way to measure the mind.

The subtractive procedure is how we can find how long it takes to do something. Oftentimes it is a simple task followed by a more complicated one and comparing the difference in time.

It is an innovative and successful way to measure the mind as it was about the only way one could’ve even attempted to measure the mental processes through behavior.

Describe Donders’ first experiment. Make sure to clearly indicate the procedure, results and conclusions.

To study reaction time, Donders’ would shock someone’s right or left foot then respond to a telegraph key.

The procedure: He’d shock either someone’s right or left foot. If the right foot is shocked, then the subject pressed telegraph key with right hand (vice versa for left).

Conditions: Subject is not warned which foot will be shocked. Then, the other group would be warned which foot would be shocked.

Results: (Unwarned)- (Warned condition)= 67ms.

Conclusion: It takes 67 milliseconds to determine which foot was shocked.

Einstein spoke of space-time that comprised four dimensions (length, width, height, time). In
the 19th century some psychologists felt that they succeeded taking mental measurements in
one of those four dimensions. Which of the four dimensions was allegedly measured, and
who is the most important individual related to these measurements

Donders was the most important individual when it came to measuring time when it came to a person’s reaction time. Thanks to Donders’ subtractive procedure, he believed he could study reaction time in relation to space-time.

Was Pavlov’s approach cognitive/mentalistic or behaviorist? Provide at least one piece of evidence or one argument to support your answer.

Pavlov’s approach was behaviorist. He noticed the drool as a behavior that would happen when the dogs started to anticipate the food. He then studied the behavior, believing he could manipulate a reflex (sounds like behaviorism) and succeeded. He also believed that organisms were machine like and that he didn’t like psychology because there was no physical data (sounds very behaviorist to me).

Was Watson’s famous Baby Albert experiment an example of classical or operant conditioning? Provide details to support your answer.

The Baby Albert experiment was classical conditioning. The way classical conditioning works is that you already have an unconditioned stimulus that causes an unconditioned response. You then throw a third thing in there (Neutral stimulus) to cause the (now) conditioned response without needing the initial stimulus anymore.

Baby Albert was never afraid of small white rats (unconditioned stimulus) until he repeatedly heard loud an upsetting noises (neutral stimulus turns to conditioned stimulus). Then, he began to fear the rats, even without the loud noise present. This response would soon, at least according to some evidence, would soon spread to other things like bunnies and even a Santa beard.

The results of this experiment were that behavior such as fear can be a learned experience.

What is the “empty organism” approach?

Skinner only carried about the stimulus and response in the S-O-R idea. He did not choose to define the organism that was between the stimulus and response because he believed that it made no difference. That the organism might as well not be there.

In what way was Skinner’s research similar to that of Watson? In what way was Skinner’s
research different from that of Watson? (only one example for each is needed)

Both behaviorists were less interested in the human mind. Limiting the understanding of psychology to things like reflexes, conditioned responses, observation and testing. Watson was interested in just how far something could be conditioned (he was inspired by Pavlov’s findings), and as such classically conditioned Baby Albert to fear small white rats. And Skinner invented the Skinner Box in order to test the conditioning of animals via different reinforcement techniques.

However Watson was also interested in subvocal activation that acquires thoughts (the idea that if we had the technology, we could see slight changes in our vocal cords that would change based on what we thought about the topic). This is something Skinner wasn’t interested in because, by his own admission, he’s not a theorist and that would’ve required theory since there was no technology at the time to do such a task that Watson wanted to do.

From the behaviorism lecture, list three of Uttal’s arguments against behaviorism.

1. Limited range of topics to be studied

2. Dehumanizes humans

3. Overemphasizes environment but deemphasizes heredity

From the behaviorism lecture, provide four of the non-Uttal arguments against behaviorism

1. It ignores the mind, purpose, and thought

2. It treats humans like lower animals

3. Reduces behavior to either biology or mathematical equations

4. It’s contributions are trivial

What did behaviorists think about Bridgman’s operationism?

Operationalism claimed that if you could operationally define something, you can study it. Behaviorists liked operationalism because they thought it justified ignoring the mind. According to behaviorists, the mind was private data and cannot be public and therefore cannot be operationally defined.

What was the name of the philosophy of August Comte? Name three key stages of that philosophy. How did August Comte’s philosophy influence behaviorism?

August Comte posited the argument for Positivism.

Stage 1, Religious: Demons and gods are the ultimate causal agents.

Stage 2, Metaphysical (the mind): inner psychological forces (i.e. hunger, lust, curiosity etc) are the ultimate causal agents

Stage 3, Positivist: One stops looking for a sentiment cause of action and merely describes the relations between antecedents and consequences.

This influences behaviorism because it’s focus is on behavior and the environment and how we interact with the causes and the consequences from those antecedents. This is obviously related to behaviorism because the approach is to avoid the mind and rather focus on a person’s behavior and their environment.

What was Thorndike’s explanation for why learning occurs? What was Skinner’s explanation
for why learning occurs?

Thorndike: Learning occurs when a behavior is followed by a pleasurable or painful consequence.

Skinner: Learning occurs when an operant response if followed by a reinforcer of some kind (whether positive or negative).

In what way was Skinner’s research similar to that of Thorndike? In what way was Skinner’s research different from that of Thorndike?

Both Thorndike and Skinner believe that learning occurs when it is followed by another action, either pleasurable or painful. Thorndike pointed out the idea of Connectionism: the mind consists of connections varying strength between situations, events, stimulus and response. He found this through trial and error learning, the law of effect and the law of exercise.

However, Skinner involved many other different types of reinforcement of behavior as well as the schedules of reinforcement involved. 

Describe four of Skinner’s arguments for why mentalism/cognition ought to be completely avoided in psychology.

Skinner believed that mentalism/cognition needed to be avoided because:

1. If we don’t know anything about someone’s past behavior/environment then we don’t know anything about their mental state.

2. We can tell someone when someone is going to be hungry based on when the last time they ate was. We couldn’t do this through the mentalism/cognition in psychology

3. We simply can’t base science on that which we can’t observe

4. He believed that if you wanted to observe the mental, one should focus on radical behaviorism as it focuses more on philosophy rather than methods and through the behavior and philosophy that explained the mental.

Describe both Skinner’s and Hempel’s argument that the mental is equivalent to the physical(natural). Do you feel that at least one of their arguments is persuasive? If so, whose arguments do you find more convincing, and why?

Skinner believed that the mental is equivalent to the physical because he has no other way to answer empirical questions about humans except through behavior alone.

Hempel on the other hand believed that the mental is equivalent to the physical because the meaning of a statement results from the way we verify the statement. That we always verify mental statements with physical/behavioral evidence. And finally, all statements about the mind are really about behavior/physiology.

I find Hempel’s the most persuasive because Skinner essentially said “I have no idea why I study the physical.” Skinner’s argument is based on ignorance and practical issues while the other actually posits a philosophical argument.

In the book and film, A Clockwork Orange, why are criminals put in prison? What causes society to release the criminals from prison?

The criminals were in jail because they were criminals of various means. While in prison, they were taught, via behaviorist tactics and would only then be released, completely losing any free will they once had.

What is the status of behaviorism in the present day? Specifically, are they dominant? Are they nearly extinct? Are they thriving?

Despite the fact of the cognitive “revolution,” while Behaviorism may not be the dominant way of thinking when it comes to psychology in today’s world, it appears that there are more behaviorists now than when Skinner was alive and the numbers appear to be growing with each year.

What three of McDougall’s criticisms of behaviorism?

1. McDougall was a big proponent of free will and behaviorism wasn’t.

2. He believed that instinct was important and humans have innate tendencies

3. He also wasn’t a huge fan of limiting psychology to only the stimulus and response.

Why did Chomsky criticize Skinner? (hint: your answer should include the words predict and retrodict. It should also include Skinner’s claims about verbal learning)

Chomsky criticizes Skinner because Skinner retrodicts, meaning Skinner “predicts” how a stimulus influences someone after that someone already said what they were seeing.

For example, Skinner sets you in front of a painting. You say something that stands out to you is the color red. Skinner than says that the stimulus that affected you the most was the color red. Skinner is making “predictions” about what is already known, predicting the past “retrodicting.”

Verbal learning, according to Skinner, cannot be predicted and therefore you have to wait until a person responds in order to know which stimulus they are affected by.