All Units

Experimental

A method of research that involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

Non-Experimental

A method of research that does not involve manipulation of variables and instead observes variables as they naturally occur.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured in an experiment to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

Confounding Variables

Variables other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions.

Random Assignment

The process of randomly assigning participants to different groups in an experiment to ensure each group is similar.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for participation in a study.

Random Sampling

A technique used to select a sample from a population in which each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

Representative Samples

Samples that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population from which they are drawn.

Convenience Samples

Samples that are selected based on ease of access rather than random selection.

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population, leading to inaccurate conclusions.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to or have relevance for settings, people, times, and measures other than the one used in the study.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a benchmark to measure how the other group performs.

Placebo Group

A group that receives a placebo treatment, which is an inactive substance, to compare against the experimental group.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where participants experience a perceived improvement in their condition due to their expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the experimenters do not know who is receiving the treatment or a placebo.

Experimenter Bias

The influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of the research.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, typically atypical; however, they aren't generalizable.

Can Correlations prove Causation?

No

When correlations are shown with numbers, the number closest to 0 is the strongest.

Wrong

Is there a difference between -.4 and .4?

No, they are both the same distance from 1 to -1.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which they both increase or decrease together. ^ ^ or v v

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases. v ^ or ^ v

Directionality Problem

A situation in correlational studies where it is unclear which variable is the cause and which is the effect. Did A cause B or did B cause A?

Third-Variable Problem

A situation in which a third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables, leading to a false correlation. Did A cause B or did B cause A or did Z cause something to happen?

Scatterplots

Graphs that display values for two variables for a set of data, showing the relationship between them.

What does a scatterplot with scattered dots, no line, mean?

It has a correlation coefficient of 0

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation between two variables.

Quantitative Measures

Data that can be quantified and expressed numerically.

Qualitative Measures

Data that is descriptive and conceptual, often collected through interviews or observations.

Surveys

A tool that involve asking participants questions to gather data. It is NOT a research method

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence perceptions and decisions.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-Report Bias

Bias that occurs when participants provide inaccurate or untruthful responses about themselves.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or overall effects.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Falsifiability

The ability to prove a hypothesis or theory wrong.

Operational Definitions

Specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to measure.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Peer Review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

Ethical Guidelines

Standards that guide researchers to conduct studies in a morally acceptable manner.

Institutional Review Board (for people)

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met when involving human participants.

Institutional Review Board (for not people)

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met when involving non-human subjects.

Informed Consent

The process of providing potential research participants with information about a study before they agree to participate.

Informed Assent

The process of obtaining agreement from individuals who are not legally able to provide informed consent, such as minors.

Protection from Harm

An ethical principle that requires researchers to minimize any potential harm to participants.

Confidentiality of Participants

The ethical obligation to protect the privacy of research participants by keeping their data secure.

Confederates

Individuals who are part of the research team but are participants in the study.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study after their involvement.

Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers, which separates the higher half from the lower half.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Measures of Variation

Statistics that describe the spread or dispersion of a set of data points.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population.

Positive Skew

A distribution where the tail on the right side is longer or fatter than the left side.

Negative Skew

A distribution where the tail on the left side is longer or fatter than the right side.

Bimodal Distributions

Distributions that have two different modes or peaks.

Regression Toward the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme values on one measurement tend to be closer to the average on a subsequent measurement.

Statistical Significance

A determination that a result is unlikely to have occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value less than 0.05.

Effect Sizes

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.

Cognitive Biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Hindsight Bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred. (I knew it all along phenomenon)

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's own abilities or knowledge.

Intuition

Gut feeling or an instinct. 'Go with your gut'.

Finding patterns in random events

It makes sense to put everything into patterns but can lead us astray

Why is psychology a science?

-Intuition

-Hindsight Bias

-Patterns in Random Events

What is the sceintific attitude?

-Humility

-Skepticism

-Curiosity

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

What are the different kinds of studies?

-Case Study

-Naturalistic Observation

-Survey

What are the different parts of a Survey?

-Population

-Sampling Bias

-Representative Bias

What are some of the different kinds of Sampling?

-Convenience

-Random

Nature

Innate characteristics influenced by genetics.

Nurture

Environmental factors affecting individual development.

Genetic Predisposition

Increased likelihood of developing traits based on genes.

Evolutionary Perspective

Study how people's behaviors or mental processes have been influenced by adapations over time

Eugenics

science dealing with improving hereditary qualities

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

Phenotype

Observable traits resulting from genotype and environment.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Chromosomes

Structures containing DNA, humans have 46 total.

Recessive Gene Expression

Trait expressed only when two recessive alleles present.

Dominant Gene Expression

Trait expressed with just one dominant allele present.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Irregularities in chromosome number or structure.

What are some Chromosomal Abnormalities?

Down Syndrome

Turner Syndrome

Williams Syndrome

PKU

Epigenetics

Study of changes in gene expression without DNA alteration.

Heritability

Measure of how much genetics influence a trait.

Central Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord