First Semester Final Exam Review: American Government- Chapters 1-3

Maintaining National Defense

Protecting national sovereignty through armed forces and strategic defense mechanisms.

National Defense Spending

The United States currently spends over $700 billion a year on national defense.

Providing Public Goods and Services

Supplying essential goods and services, like education, healthcare, infrastructure, and environmental protection, that the private sector may not adequately address.

Types of Public Goods

Some public goods are collective goods that can be provided only by government, such as clean air or clean water.

Individual Public Goods

Public goods and services, such as college or medical care, can be provided to some individuals without being provided to all.

Preserving Order and Protecting Public Safety

Ensuring domestic tranquility and security through law enforcement, emergency response, and legal frameworks.

Restoring Order

When people protest in large numbers, governments may resort to extreme measures to restore order.

Socializing the Young

Educating youth about national values, history, and civic responsibilities, fostering patriotism and responsible citizenship.

Political Socialization

Governments politically socialize the young—that is, instill in children knowledge of and pride in the nation and its political system and values.

Collecting Taxes

Levying taxes to finance government operations and the provision of public goods and services.

Tax Contribution

Approximately $1 out of every $3 earned by American citizens goes to national, state, and local taxes.

Politics Definition

Politics, as defined by Harold Lasswell, focuses on 'who gets what, when, and how.'

Who in Politics

Voters, candidates, political parties, interest groups, and those holding public office.

What in Politics

Benefits and burdens distributed by government (e.g., public services, regulations, taxes).

When in Politics

The timing of political decisions and policy implementation.

How in Politics

The methods of political participation, including voting, campaigning, lobbying, and protesting.

Policymaking System

A cyclical process that involves expressing interests, concerns, and problems.

Linkage Institutions

Channeling citizen concerns into the political sphere (political parties, elections, interest groups, and media).

Policy Agenda

The set of issues that government officials prioritize for action.

Policymaking Institutions

Making decisions and enacting policies (Congress, President, Courts, and Bureaucracy).

Policies

Implemented and impacting people's lives (laws, executive orders, regulations, court decisions).

Principles of Democracy

Core principles that guide democratic governance.

Equality in Voting

'One person, one vote.'

Effective Participation

Equal opportunities for citizens to influence decision-making.

Enlightened Understanding

Access to information and a free press.

Citizen Control of the Agenda

Public influence on policy priorities.

Inclusion

Extending rights and representation to all citizens.

Majority Rule, Minority Rights

Balancing the will of the majority with protections for minority rights.

Representation

Elected officials acting on behalf of their constituents.

Pluralism

Power is distributed among diverse interest groups, ensuring public interest through compromise and negotiation.

Elitism

A small, wealthy elite holds disproportionate power and shapes policy to serve their interests.

Elite theorists

Belief that 1 percent of Americans controls most policy decisions due to their ability to finance election campaigns and control key institutions.

Hyperpluralism

Excessive influence by competing interest groups leads to gridlock and ineffective governance.

Weakening of Democratic Norms

Erosion of accepted political behavior and tolerance.

Increased Complexity of Issues

Difficulty for citizens and policymakers to fully understand complex policy challenges.

Limited Participation

Low voter turnout and civic engagement.

Escalating Campaign Costs

Influence of money in elections and potential for special interest dominance.

Diverse Political Interests

Policy gridlock resulting from conflicting interests and inability to build consensus.

American political culture

The shared values and beliefs that shape political behavior in American democracy.

Liberty

Freedom from excessive government interference.

Individualism

Self-reliance and limited government involvement in individual affairs.

Laissez-Faire

Free market economics and limited government intervention.

Populism

Focus on the concerns and interests of ordinary people.

Egalitarianism

Equality of opportunity, even if not equality of outcome.

Declining Civic Engagement

Erosion of social capital and participation in civic organizations.

Economic Inequality

Growing wealth gap and potential for it to undermine equality of opportunity.

Political Polarization

Increasing partisan division and distrust, making compromise and cooperation more difficult.

Active Government

Arguments for addressing social problems, ensuring fairness and equality, and providing essential public goods.

Limited Government

Arguments for protecting individual liberty, promoting economic freedom, and avoiding government overreach.

Origins of the Constitution

The Constitution was born out of the American Revolution and the failures of the Articles of Confederation.

The Madisonian System

The Constitution employs a complex system of checks and balances and separation of powers designed to prevent tyranny.

Federalism

Power is divided between the national and state governments, providing an additional check on national power.

Constitutional Change

The Constitution is a living document that can be changed formally through amendments and informally through judicial interpretation.

Scope of Government

The Constitution both limits and enables government action.

Grievances against British Rule

Colonists protested against taxation without representation, restrictions on trade, and violations of individual liberties.

Declaration of Independence

Declared the colonies' independence and outlined the principles of natural rights, consent of the governed, and the right to revolt.

Influence of Enlightenment Thinkers

John Locke's concept of natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, heavily influenced the Founders.

Articles of Confederation

The first government was too weak to effectively govern, lacking the power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.

Shays's Rebellion

An uprising of farmers in Massachusetts that highlighted the weakness of the Articles and spurred the call for a stronger national government.

The Philadelphia Convention (1787)

Delegates from 12 states gathered to revise the Articles and ultimately decided to draft a new Constitution.

Connecticut Compromise

Resolved the debate over representation in Congress by creating a bicameral legislature with equal representation in the Senate and population-based representation in the House.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted slaves as three-fifths of a person for the purpose of determining representation and taxation.

Core Ideas of the Founders

Belief in human nature as self-interested, the need to protect property rights, and the dangers of factions.

Limited Rights Protections

The original Constitution offered few explicit protections for individual liberties, a major point of contention during ratification debates.

Separation of Powers

Power is divided among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

Each branch has powers to limit the actions of the others, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Limiting Majority Control

Madison sought to protect minority rights by placing some parts of government beyond direct control of the majority.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

A fierce debate over ratification ensued between Federalists, who supported the Constitution, and Anti-Federalists, who opposed it.

The Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, arguing in favor of ratification and outlining the principles of the new government.

Bill of Rights

The Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights to address Anti-Federalist concerns about individual liberties, with the first ten amendments ratified in 1791.

Formal Amendments

The Constitution can be formally amended through a complex process requiring supermajorities in both Congress and the states.

Informal Change

The Constitution also changes informally through judicial interpretation.

Judicial Interpretation

The Supreme Court plays a key role in interpreting the Constitution's meaning.

Marbury v. Madison

The landmark case that established the principle of judicial review.

Political Practice

Customs and traditions have shaped the operation of the government, even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution.

Changing Social Norms

Societal changes have led to new interpretations of the Constitution, such as the expansion of civil rights.

Democracy

The Constitution does not create a pure majoritarian democracy. The system of checks and balances and the protection of minority rights often limit the power of the majority.

Scope of Government

The Constitution both limits and enables government action. It protects individual liberties but also provides a framework for government to address societal needs.

Factions

The most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property.

Ambition and Government

Ambition must be made to counteract ambition... you must first enable the government to control the governed; and then in the next place oblige it to control itself.

Living Constitution

The Constitution belongs to the living and not to the dead.

Federalism

Federalism is a system where two or more levels of government share authority over the same area and people.

Constitutional Basis of Federalism

The U.S. Constitution divides power between the national and state governments, emphasizing national supremacy through the Supremacy Clause.

Evolution of Federalism

The shift from dual federalism (separate spheres of power) to cooperative federalism (shared responsibilities) is traced.

Impact on Policy and Democracy

Federalism leads to diversity in state policies, fosters policy innovation, and decentralizes political power.

National Supremacy

The Supremacy Clause (Article VI) establishes that the Constitution, national laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land, overriding state laws when conflicts arise.

Implied Powers

The case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) affirmed the national government's implied powers, derived from the 'necessary and proper' clause.

Commerce Clause

The Constitution grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce, interpreted broadly in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824).

Commerce

The Constitution gives Congress the power to regulate inter-state and international commerce.

Obligations Among States

The Constitution mandates states to give full faith and credit to other states' public acts, extradite criminals, and grant citizens of other states the same privileges and immunities as their own citizens.

National Government Obligations

The Constitution also creates obligations of the national government toward the states, such as protecting states against violence and invasion.

Cooperative Federalism

The U.S. system has shifted from dual federalism to a more cooperative model, where national and state governments share powers and policy responsibilities, often blurring clear distinctions.

Fiscal Federalism

This system uses federal grants-in-aid (categorical and block grants) to influence state and local policies, constituting a significant portion of state and local budgets. Is is the pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; it is the cornerstone of the national government's relations with state and local governments.

Policy Diversity

Federalism leads to variation in public policies across states, fostering innovation and allowing states to tailor policies to their citizens' needs.

Impact on Democracy

Federalism decentralizes politics, provides more opportunities for citizen participation, and allows different viewpoints to be reflected in state policies.

Unfunded Mandates

Federal requirements on states to implement policies without providing sufficient funding create fiscal burdens for states.

Expansion of National Government

While the national government's scope has grown, it has not displaced the states, reflecting its capacity to address issues like economic regulation, national security, and social welfare.

Federalism

Federalism is a way of organizing a nation so that two or more levels of government share formal authority over the same area and people.

Tenth Amendment

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Dual Federalism

Dual federalism is a system of government in which the states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres, each with different powers and policy responsibilities.