AP PSYCH REVIEW

Structuralism

Utilized introspection to uncover the underlying structures of the mind.

Functionalism

Focuses on analyzing the purpose behind behavior.

Evolutionary

Emphasizes the role of genes in behavior and mental processes.

Humanistic

Centers on concepts like free will, choice, and self-actualization.

Biological

Involves the brain and neurotransmitters.

Cognitive

Focuses on perceptions and thoughts.

Behavioral

Concerned with learned behaviors and reinforcement.

Psychoanalytic/Dynamic

Involves the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

Sociocultural

Considers the influence of society on behavior.

Biopsychosocial

A combination of various psychological perspectives.

Experiment

Involves variables, groups like experimental and control, and concepts like placebo effect.

Independent Variable

Manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The measured variable dependent on the independent variable.

Operational Definition

Clear, precise definition of variables for replication.

Confound

Error or flaw in a study.

Random Assignment

Assigns participants randomly to groups to minimize bias.

Reliability

Consistency of results over time.

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive incoming signals in a neuron.

Axon

Part of a neuron where action potentials travel.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released in the synaptic gap.

Action Potential

Electrical charge traveling down a neuron's axon.

Central Nervous System

Includes the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Comprises the rest of the nervous system.

Endocrine System

Sends hormones throughout the body for regulation.

Absolute Threshold

Detection of a signal 50% of the time.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Sleep

Involves different stages like REM and theories like Freud's wish fulfillment.

Psychoactive Drugs

Influence brain function and behavior.

Classical Conditioning

Involves concepts like US, UR, CS, and CR.

Operant Conditioning

Based on reinforcement and punishment principles.

Memory Storage

Involves sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Cerebellum

Responsible for procedural memories

Long-term potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections with repeated stimulation

Retrieval

Process of taking information out of storage

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember the beginning and end of a list best

Recall

Remembering information without cues

Recognition

Remembering information with cues

Flashbulb memories

Vivid memories of highly important events

Repressed memories

Unconsciously buried memories that may be unreliable

Encoding failure

Forgetting information due to lack of attention during encoding

Forgetting curve

Recall decreases rapidly at first, then plateaus

Proactive interference

Old information blocks new information

Retroactive interference

New information blocks old information

Misinformation effect

Memory distortion by suggestion or misinformation

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall old memories

Alzheimer's Disease

Caused by destruction of acetylcholine in the hippocampus

Parkinson's

Characterized by loss of dopamine

Multiple sclerosis

Degeneration of the myelin sheath

Phonemes

Smallest unit of sound in language

Morpheme

Smallest unit carrying meaning in language

Grammar

Rules enabling communication in a language

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning in language

Syntax

Rules for combining words into sentences

Babbling stage

Initial stage of speech development in infants

Operant conditioning

Learning through reinforcement for language use

Cognitive-Dissonance

The discomfort felt when two thoughts are inconsistent, leading to actions to reduce the discomfort.

Scapegoat

Theory where prejudice provides an outlet for anger by blaming someone else.

Left Brain

Controls language and logic functions.

Right Brain

Manages creative and spatial tasks.

Corpus Callosum

Structure dividing the brain's hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer covering the brain.

Lateral Hypothalamus

Stimulates hunger.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Suppresses hunger.

Broca's Area

Responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Involved in language comprehension.

Identical Twins

Result from the same fertilized egg.

Fraternal Twins

Develop from two separate eggs.

Afferent Neurons

Transmit sensory information to the brain.

Efferent Neurons

Carry motor commands from the brain to the body.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information based on existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Concrete Operations

Stage of logical thinking in cognitive development.

Formal Operations

Stage of philosophical thinking in cognitive development.

Sensation

Bottom-up processing of sensory information.

Perception

Top-down processing to interpret sensory information.

Primacy Effect

Tendency to remember first items in a list.

Recency Effect

Tendency to recall the last items in a list.

Proactive Interference

Loss of new information due to prior learning.

Retroactive Interference

Loss of old information due to new learning.

Implicit Memory

Nondeclarative memory for skills.

Explicit Memory

Declarative memory for facts.

Recall Memory

Retrieval without cues.

Recognition Memory

Retrieval with some hints.

Fluid Intelligence

Capacity for problem-solving and reasoning.

Crystallized Intelligence

Acquired knowledge and skills.

Similarity

Preference for individuals who are similar to ourselves

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the well-being of others

Bystander effect

Phenomenon where the presence of others discourages an individual from helping someone in need

Social exchange theory

Theory suggesting that social behavior, such as helping, is an exchange process aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity norm

Tendency to give in expectation of receiving something in return

Central route to persuasion

Persuasion technique that relies on logic, data, and facts to convince others

Divergent thinking

Process of generating unique ideas or solutions to a problem

Approach-approach conflict

Situation where one must choose between two desirable options

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Situation where one must choose between two undesirable options

Approach-avoidance conflict

Situation where one must decide between options that have both desirable and undesirable aspects

Metacognition

Ability to think about one's own thinking process

General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye's model of stress response involving alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages

Convergent thinking

Thinking process that aims to find a single correct answer