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Structuralism
Utilized introspection to uncover the underlying structures of the mind.
Functionalism
Focuses on analyzing the purpose behind behavior.
Evolutionary
Emphasizes the role of genes in behavior and mental processes.
Humanistic
Centers on concepts like free will, choice, and self-actualization.
Biological
Involves the brain and neurotransmitters.
Cognitive
Focuses on perceptions and thoughts.
Behavioral
Concerned with learned behaviors and reinforcement.
Psychoanalytic/Dynamic
Involves the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
Sociocultural
Considers the influence of society on behavior.
Biopsychosocial
A combination of various psychological perspectives.
Experiment
Involves variables, groups like experimental and control, and concepts like placebo effect.
Independent Variable
Manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable
The measured variable dependent on the independent variable.
Operational Definition
Clear, precise definition of variables for replication.
Confound
Error or flaw in a study.
Random Assignment
Assigns participants randomly to groups to minimize bias.
Reliability
Consistency of results over time.
Neuron
Basic cell of the nervous system.
Dendrites
Receive incoming signals in a neuron.
Axon
Part of a neuron where action potentials travel.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released in the synaptic gap.
Action Potential
Electrical charge traveling down a neuron's axon.
Central Nervous System
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System
Comprises the rest of the nervous system.
Endocrine System
Sends hormones throughout the body for regulation.
Absolute Threshold
Detection of a signal 50% of the time.
Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.
Sleep
Involves different stages like REM and theories like Freud's wish fulfillment.
Psychoactive Drugs
Influence brain function and behavior.
Classical Conditioning
Involves concepts like US, UR, CS, and CR.
Operant Conditioning
Based on reinforcement and punishment principles.
Memory Storage
Involves sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Cerebellum
Responsible for procedural memories
Long-term potentiation
Strengthening of neural connections with repeated stimulation
Retrieval
Process of taking information out of storage
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to remember the beginning and end of a list best
Recall
Remembering information without cues
Recognition
Remembering information with cues
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of highly important events
Repressed memories
Unconsciously buried memories that may be unreliable
Encoding failure
Forgetting information due to lack of attention during encoding
Forgetting curve
Recall decreases rapidly at first, then plateaus
Proactive interference
Old information blocks new information
Retroactive interference
New information blocks old information
Misinformation effect
Memory distortion by suggestion or misinformation
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to recall old memories
Alzheimer's Disease
Caused by destruction of acetylcholine in the hippocampus
Parkinson's
Characterized by loss of dopamine
Multiple sclerosis
Degeneration of the myelin sheath
Phonemes
Smallest unit of sound in language
Morpheme
Smallest unit carrying meaning in language
Grammar
Rules enabling communication in a language
Semantics
Rules for deriving meaning in language
Syntax
Rules for combining words into sentences
Babbling stage
Initial stage of speech development in infants
Operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement for language use
Cognitive-Dissonance
The discomfort felt when two thoughts are inconsistent, leading to actions to reduce the discomfort.
Scapegoat
Theory where prejudice provides an outlet for anger by blaming someone else.
Left Brain
Controls language and logic functions.
Right Brain
Manages creative and spatial tasks.
Corpus Callosum
Structure dividing the brain's hemispheres.
Cerebral Cortex
The outer layer covering the brain.
Lateral Hypothalamus
Stimulates hunger.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Suppresses hunger.
Broca's Area
Responsible for speech production.
Wernicke's Area
Involved in language comprehension.
Identical Twins
Result from the same fertilized egg.
Fraternal Twins
Develop from two separate eggs.
Afferent Neurons
Transmit sensory information to the brain.
Efferent Neurons
Carry motor commands from the brain to the body.
Assimilation
Interpreting new information based on existing schemas.
Accommodation
Adjusting existing schemas to incorporate new information.
Concrete Operations
Stage of logical thinking in cognitive development.
Formal Operations
Stage of philosophical thinking in cognitive development.
Sensation
Bottom-up processing of sensory information.
Perception
Top-down processing to interpret sensory information.
Primacy Effect
Tendency to remember first items in a list.
Recency Effect
Tendency to recall the last items in a list.
Proactive Interference
Loss of new information due to prior learning.
Retroactive Interference
Loss of old information due to new learning.
Implicit Memory
Nondeclarative memory for skills.
Explicit Memory
Declarative memory for facts.
Recall Memory
Retrieval without cues.
Recognition Memory
Retrieval with some hints.
Fluid Intelligence
Capacity for problem-solving and reasoning.
Crystallized Intelligence
Acquired knowledge and skills.
Similarity
Preference for individuals who are similar to ourselves
Altruism
Unselfish concern for the well-being of others
Bystander effect
Phenomenon where the presence of others discourages an individual from helping someone in need
Social exchange theory
Theory suggesting that social behavior, such as helping, is an exchange process aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Reciprocity norm
Tendency to give in expectation of receiving something in return
Central route to persuasion
Persuasion technique that relies on logic, data, and facts to convince others
Divergent thinking
Process of generating unique ideas or solutions to a problem
Approach-approach conflict
Situation where one must choose between two desirable options
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Situation where one must choose between two undesirable options
Approach-avoidance conflict
Situation where one must decide between options that have both desirable and undesirable aspects
Metacognition
Ability to think about one's own thinking process
General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye's model of stress response involving alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages
Convergent thinking
Thinking process that aims to find a single correct answer
Note 
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