EARTH SCIENCE

Soil and sand layers

Naturally filter water as it percolates down to underground aquifers.

Aquifers

Deep underground water storage that provides clean drinking water.

Wetlands

Absorb heavy metals, nitrates, and pollutants, improving water quality.

Trees and forests

Filter rainwater through root systems and soil, preventing pollutants from reaching water bodies.

Moss and lichens

Act as natural filters by absorbing water and pollutants from the air.

Oysters and clams

Filter large amounts of water, maintaining clean marine environments.

Mangroves

Trap sediments and absorb excess nutrients, acting as natural water filters.

Rivers

Purify water through aeration, allowing interaction with the atmosphere.

Riverbanks

Healthy vegetation prevents runoff from contaminating water.

Mountain streams

Filter water by passing over rocks and gravel, removing particulates.

Karst systems

Filter water through underground channels formed by limestone.

Waterfalls

Oxygenate water, supporting aquatic life and breaking down organic waste.

The water cycle

Earth's efficient water purifier, evaporating impurities and leaving clean vapor.

Rainwater

Naturally filtered by vegetation, soil, and rock layers before reaching groundwater.

Coral reefs

Remove excess nutrients from water, preventing harmful algae growth.

Sponges

Filter water in the ocean by absorbing small particles and microorganisms.

Lake beds and sediments

Act as natural filtration systems for groundwater.

Estuaries

Trap pollutants from rivers before they enter the ocean.

Peatlands and bogs

Filter water by trapping sediments and absorbing excess nutrients.

Rocks

Granite and sandstone filter water as groundwater moves through them.

Biofilms

Communities of bacteria and algae that help break down pollutants in water.

Riparian zones

Filter runoff water before it enters rivers or streams.

Volcanic rocks

Highly porous rocks that filter water through tiny air pockets.

Swamps and marshes

Absorb excess nutrients and break down organic material, providing natural filtration.

Groundwater recharge areas

Filter water naturally through soil and rock layers as it infiltrates the ground.

Sedimentation ponds

Allow particles to settle, removing pollutants before water flows into larger bodies.

Fungi and microbes

Break down pollutants in soil ecosystems, improving water quality.

Dunes

Coastal sand formations that filter rainwater, replenishing groundwater.

Plankton

Consume microscopic particles in oceans, helping maintain clean waters.

Seagrass meadows

Trap sediments and nutrients, reducing water pollution and promoting biodiversity.

Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.

Evaporation

Water from oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water is heated by the sun and converted into water vapor (gas).

Transpiration

Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots and release it into the air as water vapor through small pores in their leaves (stomata).

Condensation

As water vapor rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses into tiny droplets to form clouds or fog.

Precipitation

When the water droplets in clouds become large and heavy, they fall back to the Earth in the form of precipitation.

Runoff

After precipitation, water flows over the Earth's surface as runoff, making its way to rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Infiltration

Water from precipitation or runoff soaks into the ground and replenishes underground reservoirs (aquifers).

Groundwater Flow

Some of the water that infiltrates the ground moves slowly through soil and rocks, eventually reaching rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Sublimation

In cold regions, water in the form of ice or snow can change directly into water vapor without melting into liquid water first.

Collection

Water from precipitation collects in bodies of water like rivers, lakes, oceans, or underground reservoirs.

closed

The water cycle is a _______ system, meaning the total amount of water on Earth doesn't change.

Natural Resources

are materials that exist in the environment without human intervention. These include water, air, soil, minerals, forests, and wildlife.

1. Renewable Resources

2. Non-Renewable Resources

two main groups of natural resources

Non-Renewable Resources

Resources that exist in finite amounts and are not easily replenished.

Renewable Resources

Resources that can be replenished naturally over time.

1. Solar Energy

2. Wind Power

3. Flowing Water

4. Geothermal Energy

Renewable Resources

Solar Energy

The sun produces heat and light, which are essential for life and can be harnessed as an unlimited source of energy.

Wind Power

Wind is generated by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. This resource remains abundant as long as the sun shines.

Flowing Water

Through the water cycle, water is renewed and can be used to generate hydroelectric power.

Geothermal Energy

The Earth's core produces heat that can be used without depleting resources like fossil fuels.

1. Oil

2. Coal

3. Natural Gas

4. Nuclear Energy

Non-Renewable Resources

Oil

A liquid fossil fuel formed over millions of years, primarily used for energy production.

Coal

A fossil fuel found in rock form, used to generate electricity and industrial energy.

Natural Gas

A gaseous fossil fuel used for heating, electricity, and industrial processes.

Nuclear Energy

Generated from uranium, this energy source is non-renewable as the fuel is limited.

1. Reduce waste and consumption.

2. Promote the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal power.

3. Protect ecosystems and biodiversity by managing forests, wildlife, and land resources responsibly.

Conserving Natural Resources

Troposphere (8-15 km)

This is the layer where weather occurs. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and most of the water vapor, clouds, and aerosols.

Stratosphere (15-50 km)

Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation. The air is more stable here, and commercial jets often fly in the lower stratosphere.

Mesosphere (50-85 km)

Meteors burn up in this layer due to increased friction. It is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.

Thermosphere (85-600 km)

Contains the ionosphere, which is important for radio communication as it reflects radio waves back to Earth. The auroras (Northern and Southern Lights) occur in this layer.

Exosphere (600-10,000 km)

This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, where the air thins out into space. Particles in this layer are so sparse that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding.

Ionosphere (60-1,000 km) (part of Thermosphere)

This sub-layer is ionized by solar radiation and is crucial for radio wave propagation and GPS signals. It overlaps with the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere.

Earth

solid rock to a depth of 2,900 kilometers, where mantle meets the liquid outer core.

Rock

its a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.

chemical bonds

The aggregate minerals forming the rocks are held together by

Petrology

is the scientific study of rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks

2. Sedimentary

3. Metamorphic

Three types of Rocks

Igneous Rocks

formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material that originates deep within the earth.

Extrusive/Volcanic

forms when magma makes its way to Earth's surface as lava and then cools.

Intrusive/Plutonic

It cools slowly beneath the Earth surface and are created by magma.

1. Extrusive/Volcanic

2. Intrusive/Plutonic

2 Types Of Igneous Rocks

1. Composition

2. Texture

Igneous rocks are classified based on;

Composition

refers to rock's mineral and chemical make-up.

Felsic-igneous

rocks that are light in colors; feldspar and silicates

Mafic-dark-colored

igneous rocks made up of magnesium, calcium and iron

Intermediate

refers to igneous rocks between mafic and felsic composition.

Ultramafic

denotes igneous rocks that composed chiefly of mafic minerals.

Texture

overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of interlocking mineral crystals.

Aphanistic-fine-grained

rocks with crystals seen by aid of microscope.

Phaneritic coarse

-grained rocks

Glassy

a rock that looks like colored glass with no visible mineral crystal

Pyroclastic

results from explosive fragmentation of volcanic material

Porphyritic

large crystals with small crystals

Metamorphic

forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks that have been altered by agents of metamorphism

Metamorphism

transformation of one rock type into another.

1. Regional

2. Contact

2 types of Metamorphism

Regional

due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the crust. It may happen when rock is buried deep below the surface of the earth.

Contact

the rock minerals and textures are changed mainly by heat due to contact with magma.

Foliation

any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the rock.

Sedimentary rocks

provide information about surface conditions that existed in the Earth's past.

Compaction

due to increase of pressure of layered sediments it bind together to form the sedimentary rocks.

1. Clastic Sedimentary

2. Chemical-formed

3. Organic-rocks

Three types of sedimentary rocks

Clastic Sedimentary rock

formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of broken rocks and shells.

Chemical

formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.

Organic

rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris.

Minerals

are the building blocks of rocks.

1. Naturally occurring

2. Inorganic

3. Homogeneous solid

4. Definite chemical composition

5. Orderly crystalline structure

Characteristics of Minerals

1. Color

2. Streak

3. Hardness

4. Cleavage

5. Crystalline structure or habit

6. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency

7. Luster

8. Tenacity

9. Sectility

Properties of Minerals

10- Diamond
9- Corundum
8- Topaz
7- Quartz
6- Orthoclase
5- Apatite
4- Fluorite
3- Calcite
2- Gypsum
1- Talc

Mohs Scale of Hardness

Streak

color of mineral in powdered form.