MURTAGH AP PSYCHOLOGY- Myers 4th Edition UNIT 0: RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS , MURTAGH AP PSYCHOLOGY- Myers 4th Edition UNIT 1: Biological Psychology 1.1 Nature vs Nurture, MURTAGH AP PSYCHOLOGY- Myers 4th Edition UNIT 1: Biological Psychology Mo…

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

social desirability bias

The bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

sampling bias (selection bias)

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample/selection

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are unaware of, or blind to, the types of treatment they are receiving, but the administrator knows

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect and influence the study's results

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Quantitative Research

Research method that relies on quantifiable numerical data

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.

effect size

strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Enviornment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical (monozygotic) twins

Individuals who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Individuals who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

the study of molecule mechanisms by which environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. They may also play a role in learning, thinking and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain, causing changes in perceptions and mood

substance use disorder

disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawl

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug