Helping and Hurting

language shift - help

close the gap by stating how the ideas are related

langauge shift - hurt

point out the gap or show how the ideas aren’t related

causal - help

1) make it seem like LESS of a coincidence and more concerete(more cause and effect) or (no cause no effect)

2) rule out alternate explanation

3) rule out reversed causality

4) increase the plausibility of the given explanation

causal - hurt

1) make the coincidence MORE likely and less concrete - show cause without effect

2) point out an alternate explanation

3) point out reversed causality

4) decrease the given plausibility of the given explanation

comparison - help

1) confirm a similarity

2) rule out a difference

comparison - hurt

point out a relevant difference

survey/ sample - help

1) confirm that the sample is representative

2) confirm that the data are valid

survey/ sample - hurt

1) show that the sample is UNrepresentative

2) point out a flaw in the data

describe or match

necessary/ sufficient; absence of evidence; ad hominem; appeals; shifting meanings; circular meanings