Helping and Hurting

language shift - help

close the gap by stating how the ideas are related

langauge shift - hurt

point out the gap or show how the ideas aren’t related

causal - help

1) if two things: make coincidence LESS likely 2) time periods: rule out alternate explanation 3) part to whole: rule out reversed causality 4) percentages vs. numbers: increase the plausibility of the given explanation

causal - hurt

1) if two things: make the coincidence MORE likely - show cause without effect

2) time periods: point out an alternate explanation

3) point out reversed causality

4) decrease the given plausibility of the given explanation

comparison - help

1) confirm a similarity

2) rule out a difference

comparison - hurt

point out a relevant difference

survey/ sample - help

1) confirm that the sample is representative

2) confirm that the data are valid

survey/ sample - hurt

1) show that the sample is UNrepresentative

2) point out a flaw in the data