Unit 3: AP World (1450-1750)

How does ruling become complicated?

Lots of territory + diverse populations + external challenges = many different ruling styles, technique and methods

Contextualizing

* Columbus exchange
* A number of land empires centralized
* Gunpowder technology is getting better, making it easier to use guns en masse
* Empires continued to be absolute, with most maintaining strict political and economic control over their domains

Main Events:

\

1453: Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople, Rise of the Ottoman Empire

1471: Completion of the Sun Temple in Cuzco, rise of the Inca Empire

1517: Martin Luther publishes *95 Theses*, Protestant Reformation begins

1526: Guru Nanak founded the first Sikh Community 

1600: Tokugawa Shogun unifies Japan

1644: Qing Dynasty is founded

1682: Palace of Versaille completed in France 

1707: Death of Emperor Aurangzeb, weakening of the Mughal Empire

\

Major Trends

* New military weapons make wars more descisive
* Increase in the size and number of empires
* Administrative systems → more resources to expand
* Collapse of Nomadic Empires → room for landed empires to expand
* Continued spread of major religions associated with empires

Utilization of religious ideas to solidify or legitimatize rule

* Rulers use religious ideas to justify their ruke
* Rulers waged conflicts against other rulers of different religions

Land-Based Empire

* Empires which existed during the period 1450-1750
* Focused their attention on land-based expansion or administration and did not express interest in controlling overseas territory:
* Long term conflict with other land based powers
* These regions did not have a history of state sponsorship or naval activity; merchants may have done most of the overseas trading
* Settled nomads who were not interested in overseas expansion ruled a few of these states
* Exceptions: The Ottoman, Ming, and French Empires all sponsored or supported major naval expeditions (complexity)
* Tokugawa Shogunate: launched a major seaborne invasion of Korea
* Most were absolute monarchies

The Ming and Qing Dynasty in modern China

* The Ming Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that ruled China from 1368 to 1644.
* Followed Yuan
* Known for its trade expansion to the outside world, including the establishment of diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the Treasure Fleet, a powerful navy that allowed China to become a dominant maritime power
* Cultural Achievements: Construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing and the completion of the Great Wall of China
* The Han Chinese established the Ming dynasty after overthrowing the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and establishing a new government in China. The Ming dynasty was well-known for its strong government, cultural achievements, and economic growth.
* Construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing, as well as the development of a thriving economy based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing

\
* Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)
* The last imperial dynasty in China
* Manchu ruled over the Han people of China
* Territorial expansion, including the conquest of Taiwan and parts of Central Asia
* Period of economic and cultural growth → unified currency and the development of a distinct Qing style of art and literature
* Political and social unrest → rebellion and the Taiping Rebellion, which was one of the deadliest conflicts in world history
* a centralized government, a social hierarchy, and a bureaucratic rule system. It was also a multicultural state, with Han Chinese, Manchus, Mongols, and other ethnic groups living there.

The Tokugawa Shogunate in Modern Japan

* Edo period (1603-1868)
* Time of relative peace and stability, marked by the centralization of power under the Tokugawa Shogunate , a hereditary military dictatorship
* Sakoku policy → isolated Japan from the rest of the world and restricted foreign trade and contact
* Economic and cultural development → economy became more centralized and industrialized, and the arts, including literature, theater, and tea ceremony flourished
* System of feudalism in which the daimyo, or regional lords, were required to spend every year in the capital, Edo (Tokyo) → further consolidated the shogunate’s power and maintain stability throughout the country
* End when the Meji Restoration restored power to the emperor and ended the rule
* Meiji period → modernization and westernization of Japan, as the country opened up to foreign influence and underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization

The Mughal Empire in Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh

* A Muslim Dynasty that ruled India from early 16th to the mid-19th century
* Babur founded it (Ancestry traces back to Timur (Turco-Mongol conqueror))
* The arts flourished
* Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Jahangir, were patrons of the arts and encouraged the development of a distinct Mughal style of art and architecture
* Religious tolerance → sought to create a peaceful and harmonious society
* Cam to an end as the BEIC gained more and more control over India

The Safavid Empire in Modern Iran and Iraq

* A Persian empire that ruled parts of present-day Iran, iraq, and the Caucasus region from the early 16th to mid 18th century
* Founded by Ismail I
* Shi’a Islam was declared the official religion of the empire
* The arts flourished
* Center of learning and scholarship, with the establishment of several major libraries and the support of scholars and intellectuals
* Had an influence on culture and history of the Middel East
* Qajar dynasty followed

The Ottoman Empire in Modern Day Turkey, Egypt, Syria, and Jordan

* Late 13th to early 20th century
* Founded by Osman I
* Known for its cultural achievements and its role as a major world power
* Arts flourished → center of learning and scholarship with the establishment of several major libraries and the support of scholars and intellectuals
* Ended in the early 20th century, following the first world war → Turkey was established on the territory

\

The Songhai Empire

* A West African empire that ruled over modern day Mali, Niger, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria
* 14th to the 16th century
* Sonni Ali → expanded its territory through military conquests
* Arts flourished → center of learning and scholarship
* Known for its contributions to the study of mathematics, astronomy, and Islamic studies
* Strong military
* Advanced government system that included a well-organized bureaucracy and a highly centralized administration

French Empire (Napoleonic Empire)

* A French state that ruled over large territory that included parts of Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the early 19th to the mid 19th century
* Founded by Napoleon Bonaparte → established himself emperor of the French and expanded the territory through military conquests
* Arts flourished
* Contributions to the fields of law, administration, and education, as many of the institutions and systems that were developed during this time continue to influence these fields today
* Came to an end in the mid 19th century, following Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo
* Monarchy was restored in France and the territory of the empire was reduced gradually through a series of treaties
* Many of the countries that the French ruled are still influenced by French culture and institutions

Russian Empire

Parts of Europe and Asia during the late 18th cent. and the early 20th cent

* Founded by Catherine the Great who established the Romanov Dynasty and expanded the empire through military conquest
* Known for its contributions to the fields of science and technology, as many notable scientist and inventors, including Mikhail Lomonosov and Dmitry Mendeleev, worked and studied in Russia during this time
* Ended, following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent collapse of the monarchy
* Westernizing:
* Under Peter the Great, Russian territory was expanded westward and a new capital was built near the Baltic sea (St Petersburg)
* Wanted to increase the power fo thee Russian state
* East ward expansion for furs
* String government and rigid hierarchy; tsar wielded absolute power in this autocracy

The Inca Empire

* South American empire that ruled over a large territory that included parts of modern day Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, and Colombia from the 13th to the 16th century
* Founded by the Inca civilization, which developed in the Andean region of South America and eventually came to dominate much of the region through military conquests
* Sophisticated system of government and administration
* advanced system of government, which included a well-organized bureaucracy and a strong centralized administration
* Incas were skilled metalworkers and weavers and produced many works of art and crafts in gold, silver, and other materials
* as the construction of roads, aqueducts, and terraced agriculture
* Center of learning and scholarship
* System of quipus, which were knotted cords that were used for record-keeping and communication

Aztec Empire (Mexica)

* A Mesoamerican empire that ruled over a large territory that included modern-day Mexico and Central America from the 14th to the 16th century
* Founded by the Aztec civilization, which developed in the central valley of Mexico and eventually came to dominate much of the region through military conquests
* Known for its system of writing, which was based on glyphs, or symbols, that represented sounds and concepts
* Conquered by Cortes
* The Aztecs followed a religion based on the worship of a pantheon of gods, and they were known for their elaborate ceremonies and human sacrifices.

Formation of Land Based Empires

* Based on the control and administration of land and territory
* Expands through military conquests, as it seeks to gain control over new territories and resources
* Examples: Roman Empire, Mongol Empire, British Empire, and the Russian Empire
* Characterized by:
* Centralized government system
* Strong ruler or ruling body at the top and a hierarchy pf officials and administrators responsible for managing various territories and populations within the empire
* Strong military presence → defense + expansion
* Cultural exchange and mixing, as the various territories and peoples within the empire come into contact with one another and exchange ideas, technologies, and cultural practices
* strong, centralized government; measures included Japan's isolation and strict trade regulations

How Do They Expand?

* Through military conquests, seeking to gain control over new territories and resources
* Accomplished through force, diplomacy, and trade
* Colonization (establishing colonies or settlements in new territories and establishing their control over them)
* Reasons: resources, such as land, minerals, and labor, for secure trade routes and markets, for protection, religion, or superiority

Gunpowder Empires

* Know for their use of gunpowder weapons and their cultural and technological achievements
* Ottoman Empire: A Muslim Empire that ruled over a large territory that included parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa from the late 13th to the early 20th century. Known for its use of artillery and its sophisticated system of government and administration
* The Safavid Empire: A Persian empire that ruled over parts of modern-day Iran and Iraq from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. It was known for its use of artillery and its cultural achievements, including the development of a distinct Safavid style of art and architecture.
* The Mughal Empire:  A Muslim dynasty that ruled over a large territory that included parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. It was known for its use of artillery and its cultural achievements, including the construction of the Taj Mahal and the development of a distinct Mughal style of art and architecture.
* The first gunpowder weapons were used by the Song Dynasty in China, but the **Islamic Empires** (Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids) and Qing China were the first to utilize them to a greater extent. The **capture of Constantinople** by the Ottomans and the conquest of Central Asia by the Qing in the late 1600s both owed their success to gunpowder weapons.  Later, after 1800, industrial manufacturing would give Europe a decisive edge in this regard.
* Cannons were used by the Ottomans to break the huge walls of Constantinople

Tokugawa Shogunate

* 1603-1868
* Time of relative peace and stability, marked by the centralization of power under the Tokugawa Shogunate, a hereditary military dictatorship
* Established by Tokugawa Ieyasu → appointed shogun by the emperor
* Implemented a number of policies:
* Sakoku Policy: isolated Japan from the rest of the world and restricted foreign trade and contact
* System of Feudalism: the daimyo, or regional lords, were required to spend every other year in the capital, Edo (present-day Tokyo). This helped to further consolidate the shogunate's power and maintain stability throughout the country.
* Economic and Cultural Development: The economy became more centralized and industrialized, and the arts, including literature, theater, and the tea ceremony, flourished
* Established a system of legal codes and administered justice through a network of local officials and courts

Trade and Tax Diplomacy

* rise to prominence was their friendly attitude toward merchants and the reduction of existing taxes (Ottoman and Mughals)
* Mughals abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims (the majority of the population) and the Ottomans also had notably lower taxes than some of the empires they conquered, such as the Byzantines

Jizya Tax

a tax that was imposed on non-Muslim subjects of Muslim states in the past

*  In some cases, the payment of jizya was seen as a mark of the subject's submission to Muslim rule and protection against military aggression.
* In some cases, jizya was seen as a burden on non-Muslim subjects and was resented, while in other cases it was seen as a fair and necessary contribution to the state.

Why nomadic empires weaken and fall?

Nomadic empires often weakened after their initial conquest because of their limited experience governing settled landed states or because they adapted so much to local customs and lost their fighting edge and distinctive identity. Also, with the rise of gunpowder weapons, nomads in particular lost their edge when horses were no longer the most important weapon on the battlefield. 

Bureaucratic and Military Elites

* Bureaucratic elites are individuals or groups of individuals who hold positions of power and influence within a government bureaucracy,
* Hold their influence because of their knowledge, education, and expertise in a particular field or area
* May be responsible for implementing government policies and programs, managing government resources, and making decisions that effect broader society
* Military elites are individuals or groups of individuals who hold positions of power and influence within the military

\
* Hold their positions of power due to their rank and position within the military hierarchy
* Lead troops, making strategic decisions, and representing the military in negotiations with other countries
* Both play important roles in the functioning of a society

Devshirme System (Ottoman Empire)

children who were not of the dominant religion (Islam) were recruited, received both military and academic education, and then were assigned either to lead on the battlefield, with the latest weapons in a military unit known as the **Janissaries**, or to help run the government in the capital.

* These positions were not hereditary
* However, a problem arose when the Janissaries were allowed to pass their position to their children (and even have children!) by the late 1600s.

Tokugawa Shogunate (military government in the Tokugawa clan)

* A new role for the samurai warrior developed
* With the unification of Japan, the samurai lost their traditional warrior roles because they had originally served local lords and given land and rents in return, but there no more local wars to fight after 1600
* The Samurai were provided with new administrative roles within the government (to prevent instability), which included administering land
* Some samurai did not receive positions; some became ronin (masterless samurai)

Why were monuments built in empires?

Monuments reinforced the rulers’ connection with established religions, sometimes they emphasized military power, other times they promoted trade, and occasionally they were just for showing superiority/flexing.

Religious Buildings

* Both the Inca Empire and the Mughal Empire had rulers who used religion to help reinforce their rule
* In Cuzco (capital of Inca), there was a major gold-covered ==sun temple== constructed high above most of the city, allowing the rulers to conduct elaborate ceremonies in full view of their subjects
* This reinforced the rulers’ connection to the sun God, Inti
* Later was torn down by the Spanish and a church was built over it (representing the victory of Christianity)
* In the Mughal Empire, a number of ==mausoleums== (tombs) were built to reflect Traditional and Persian Islamic Architecture, so much so that Mughal Architecture became its own category of Islamic Architecture in South Adian
* Taj Mahal (built as a tomb for a Mughal Emperor’s wife): has the appearance of a mosque and the interior is covered in excerpts from the Quran. Both structures served to reinforce the piety and faithfulness of Mughal rulers to Islam

Military Strength

* The Palace of Versailles in France built by Louis XIV was a Parade Ground for military demonstrations
* Louis XIV kept the centralization of France by making the nobles in line live part of the year in Versailles and by having military demonstrations in front of them and foreign delegates

Divine Right

* Rulers using religion to promote their power, either directly or through their right to rule given by a divine power
* Roman Empire: European monarchs from Russia to France claimed, and were claimed, to be ruling in the name of the Christian God
* They ruled by the consent of the divine, with God’s permission (similar to the Mandate of Heaven in imperial China)

Mandate of Heaven

**the divine source of authority and the right to rule of China's early kings and then emperors.** The ancient god or divine force known as Heaven or Sky selected a particular individual to rule on its behalf on earth. 

* o conduct himself justly and in the best interests of his subjects.

Songhai Empire (religious justification)

* The ruling family promoted Islam, as had Mali and Ghana
* The Songhai rulers brought in more Islamic scholars and more forcefully spread the religion among the people of the empire (Mali didn’t force its subjects to convert)
* Many of the rulers of the empire took the name Muhammad, after the Islamic prophet
* Islamic scholars would spread a story that the empire’s family was a jinn, a type of spirit in Islamic mythology, who protected the empire’s subjects

Aztec Empire (human sacrifice)

* The rulers maintained a close relationship with the priest class.
* Aztec rulers launched campaigns to acquire prisoners of war and human tribute from subject people in order to continue the practice of human sacrifice by the priest class, which was demanded by the Gods
* Militant state which subjected most of the other peoples in Central Mexico in return for tribute in goods and people, calculate via tribute lists
* In return for human sacrifice, Aztec priests would legitimize the rule of the leader

Taxes

* some system by which to collect funds, either in money or some other form of value, and then distribute them.
* Japan: The salaried samurai in Japan would collect taxes
* Mughal Empire: zamindars collected taxes; Zamindars and samurai were military leaders or military classes in the empire; they were given the task of collecting taxes for the central government
* The ruling Muslims gave local Hindu princes the task of collecting taxes as zamindars in order to incorporate them into the government

Tax Farming

* Governments sold the rights to collect taxes in a practice known as tax farming (Ottoman Empire)
* Sultan would give non-government official the right to collect taxes for themselves at their own rate from a certain number of villages for a given amount of time, in return for an upfront payment
* This was a quick way for the empire to raise funds, but could stifle development in the long run as the tax farmer could eliminate any surplus production by taxing the people too much.
* a tendency of the tax-farmers to abuse the taxpayer for collection. Only when the system included checks and balances for the tax-farmer as well as the taxpayer did the system seem truly successful.
* a **system of collecting taxes and other state revenues from the population by a private person, authorized by the state in exchange for a cash payment or a fixed fee**

Many Forms of Taxes

* In pre-modern times, when metal currency was not widely available and paper money was not in fashion, taxes could be collected in the form of labor or products (referred to as a “tax in kind).
* However in the Ming Empire, when Spanish colonization of the Americas led to an abundance of silver coinage flowing through the empire, the government made the decision to collect all taxes in silver. This monetized the economy, since labor is not easily mobile and food tribute rots eventually, but silver is solid. This made it easier for the government to pay for services and support the bureaucracy, though eventually inflation became a problem as the supply of silver continued to increase. 

\

Five reasons the gunpowder empires were unable to maintain their rule

* unable to compete with European trading companies, especially the British
* unable to solve conflicts of heirs motivated by harems politics
* weak or corrupt leadership
* failure to keep up with the developments in military and naval technology
* the expensive armies each empire needed to maintain their control, placed harsh financial burdens on the peasants and villages in form of taxes and other obligations.

Protestant Reformation

Opposed the Catholic Church in Rome, found strong supporters in Northern Europe and in parts of France

* Henry IV (France) and Albert Duke of Prussia promoted or tolerated Protestant ideas that might have otherwise been crushed by the Catholic Counter-Reformation and Inquisition, which received support from Catholic monarchs
* Protestant monarchs used the newly formed Protestant churches to break away from the church in Rome and seize its property (gain more power from the church)

What was the Protestant Reformation?

A major 16th century European movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church.

* Led by Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian, who challenged the authority of the Pope and the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church
* His ideas were based on the belief that people could be saved through faith alone and not through good works or the Church’s sacraments → controversial and led to a split within the Church
* Protestant Reformation led to the creation of Protestant churches, such as the Lutheran Church, the Calvinist Church, and the Anglican Church. Also contributed to the development of the modern nation-state and the democratization of Europe

Who was Martin Luther?

A German monk and theologian who was known for his role in the Protestant Reformation, a 16th century movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church

* 1517: “Ninety Five Theses” was published, which were a list of criticisms of the Church’s practices, particularly the sale of indulgences → sparked debate with the Church
* His ideas:
* Salvation could be achieved through faith alone and not through good works or the Church’s sacraments → challenged the authority of the Pope
* He translated the Bible to German
* Advocated for reforms such as the use of vernacular languages in worship and the elimination of the sale of indulgences

South Asian Empires

* The Mughal Empire represented a much deeper connection between Islam and Hinduism than had previously existed
* Popular religious movements arises such as Sufism (**emphasizes the importance of personal experience and individual approach to understanding God**, rather than relying solely on scriptural study.) and the Bhakti Movement (**Hindu devotional movement** that flourished in the early modern era, emphasizing music, dance, poetry, and rituals as means by which to achieve direct union with the divine.)

Sufism

a mystical Islamic belief system, with its own set of rituals, beliefs, and practices.

* It seeks to achieve a greater understanding of Islam and a closer relationship with God through prayer, meditation, and the pursuit of spiritual truth.
* Sufis follow a spiritual leader, or shaikh, and often live and worship in communities called "orders" or "brotherhoods." 
* Emphasizes the importance of personal experience and individual approach to understanding God, rather than relying solely on scriptural study

Bhakti Movement

A spiritual and social movement that originated in ancient Indian and spread throughout the Indian subcontinent

* Based on the belief in the power of devotion to a personal god or deity as a means of achieving spiritual liberation
* Emphasizes the importance of an emotional and personal relationship with God and rejects the more formal, ritualistic aspects of traditional Hinduism
* Influential and the spread of Hinduism → contributed to the development of Hindu-Muslim relations

Sikhism

* Syncretic → containing many elements of Islam (monotheism) and Hinduism (reincarnation and karma). It is not an accident that Sikhism emerged in northern South Asia where Islamic-Hindu contacts were strongest.
* Lethe central belief is the existence of one eternal God, who is the same for all people and all religions
* Emphasizes the equality of all people and rejects the caste system that is part of Hinduism
* emphasizes the importance of performing good deeds and living a disciplined, honest, and compassionate life. The faith is known for its strong emphasis on social justice and its commitment to serving the poor and marginalized members of society.

Sunni-Shia Split

* Ottomans vs Safavid
* Occurred around 700 CE

Multiple Choice

* Qing → banned Christianity after receiving Jesuit Missionaries from Europe → entered an isolationist phase when it banned Christianity and trade with Europe
* Protestant Reformation → Christian publications (e.g. Bible) were translated from Latin to more vernacular (common) languages. People were now able to learn to read a variety of texts with the help of the mass production of the printing press as well; increased literacy rates across Europe
* RCC’s response to the Protestant Reformation → it launched a Catholic Reformation to win back some of the newly converted; banned the sale of indulgences and re-trained its priests to live the Catholic life to regain its credibility
* England → Rulers were Protestants in the 1500s → King Henry VIII established the Church of England

Difference Between Land-Based and Maritime Empires

* Land: wealth came from rich agriculture and profitable trade routes
* Maritime (French, Portuguese, Dutch, British): wealth from overseas trade , colonies, or controlling overseas trades routes
* Administrative systems:
* Based on Religious Justification (claiming direct connection to the divine as the right to rule):
* Divine Right of Kings (French)
* Mandate of Heaven (China)
* Songhai Islam
* Based on Military Elites (a system of warriors who are loyal to the ruler or the state which helps them maintain power):
* Devshirme System (Ottoman Empire)
* Samurai Warriors (Japan)
* Social Hierarchies:
* Based on Race/Culture:
* Qing Dynasty (Restrictive Policy on Han Chinese)
* Spanish Empire (The Casta System)
* Based on Religion:
* Ottoman Empire (The Millet System, which gave miniority religious communities within the Empire limited power to regulate their own affairs; gave each religion its own political zone)
* The Mughal Empire (Zamindar/Rajput System)
* Maritime Empires:
* Trading Post Empires:
* The Portuguese in Africa/India, The Butch in Southeast Asia
* Trading Post Empires often confronted established and long standing empires or populations they could not eliminate or geography that was unfavorable to conquest.
* did not assert authority over land, but did overseas 
* Colonial Empires:
* The French in North America, The British in North America, The Spanish in North and South America
* places where Europeans conquered land and sometimes settled their own populations there