Chapter 2 - Rivers, Cities, and First States

What time period do these notes cover?

3500–2000 BCE

What are the major features of the global storyline from 3500–2000 BCE?

Five great river basins developed complex societies, early urbanization occurred, long-distance trade connected Afro-Eurasian societies, and most people lived agrarian lives.

What were the five great river basins associated with complex societies?

The Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Yellow, and Yangzi river basins.

What characterized early urbanization?

Technology, buildings, religions, writing, social hierarchy, and specialized labor.

How did long-distance trade affect Afro-Eurasian societies?

Long-distance trade connected societies across Afro-Eurasia.

What type of life did most people live during this period?

Most people lived agrarian lives.

Where did the first large cities emerge?

Large cities emerged in several major river valleys in Afro-Eurasia.

What was Uruk?

Uruk was a city in Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River and was a commercial and administrative center.

Why is Uruk historically important?

Uruk was the first city of its kind in world history.

Where else did early urban areas develop?

Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China.

Did most of the world's population live in cities?

No. Most of the world's population continued to live in small communities.

Why did people move closer to rivers around 3500 BCE?

River banks provided fertile soil because of flooding and were useful for crop irrigation.

How did river flooding benefit agriculture?

Flooding deposited rich soil and provided opportunities for crop irrigation.

What natural resources supported early cities?

The large availability of domesticated plants and animals supported early cities.

Where were three major early river-basin civilizations located?

The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Southwest Asia, the northern Nile River flowing toward the Mediterranean Sea, and the Indus River basin in northwestern South Asia.

Which rivers became important in China about 1,000 years later?

The Yellow River and Yangzi River.

What technology did early river-basin societies rely on?

Irrigation technology.

How was the wheel used?

The wheel was used for pottery and vehicles.

What was metallurgy?

The working of metals to produce new tools and other objects.

What did stone-working produce?

New tools and other useful objects.

How did writing affect early societies?

Writing facilitated administration and communication.

Why did new socioeconomic inequalities develop?

Rising numbers of different vocations created new socioeconomic inequalities.

What were social hierarchies based on?

Social hierarchy was based on status and gender.

How were urban and rural lifestyles connected?

Urban and rural lifestyles relied on one another.

What characterized urban life?

Mass production and specialization.

What characterized rural life?

Countryside life focused on farming and tending livestock.

How were urban and rural communities linked?

They were linked through trade, commerce, politics, and religion.

What happened to pastoralist communities around 3500 BCE?

Afro-Eurasian pastoralist communities grew and spread.

What were transhumant herder communities in Southwest Asia?

Communities that remained relatively small and moved cyclically between highlands and lowlands.

What characterized transhumant herder communities?

They remained small with limited public buildings and infrastructure and moved cyclically from highlands to lowlands.

Where did pastoralist communities develop in Inner Mongolia and Central Asia?

They developed in steppe lands that were not conducive to farming.

Why did pastoralists focus on animal breeding and herding?

The steppe lands were not well suited for farming, so people focused on animals.

What other activities did pastoralists use for survival?

They also practiced fishing, hunting, and small-scale farming.

Why were horses important to pastoralists?

Horses were used for transportation and other pastoral activities.

How did nomadic and transhumant groups affect Afro-Eurasia?

They connected cities and helped spread ideas across Afro-Eurasia.

Why were cows important to pastoralist communities?

Cows provided hides, meat, milk, tendons for sewing string, and fat for making soap or grease.

What was Mesopotamia?

Mesopotamia was the world's first complex society.

Why did Mesopotamia develop cities and states?

Natural advantages and easy access to neighboring regions favored the growth of cities and eventually states.

Why were the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers challenging?

The rivers were wild and unpredictable.

How did Mesopotamians control the rivers?

They created revolutionary irrigation systems.

What were levees used for?

Levees were used to prevent overflowing during flooding.

Why was Mesopotamia a crossroads of Southwest Asia?

Mesopotamia had open boundaries and needed to trade with surrounding areas for natural resources.

What natural resources did Mesopotamia lack?

Mesopotamia had few natural resources.

What resource came from Lebanon?

Cedar came from Lebanon.

What resources came from Oman?

Copper and stones came from Oman.

Where did Mesopotamia obtain copper from?

Copper came from Turkey and Iran.

Where did Mesopotamia obtain lapis lazuli and tin?

Lapis lazuli and tin came from Afghanistan.

How did open boundaries affect Mesopotamia?

Open boundaries made trade easier.

How did trade and migration affect Mesopotamia?

Trade and migration contributed to the growth of cities.

Why did Mesopotamia become a crossroads for cultures?

Trade and migration brought different peoples and cultures into contact.

Who were the Sumerians?

The Sumerians lived in southern Mesopotamia.

Who were the Hurrians?

The Hurrians lived in northern Mesopotamia.

Who were the Akkadians?

The Akkadians lived in western Mesopotamia.

When did population expansion and migration into cities occur?

During the fourth millennium BCE.

How did early cities develop?

Early cities grew gradually as populations expanded and people migrated from rural villages to city centers.

What material was commonly used to build early cities?

Mud brick.

What was Eridu?

Eridu was an early Mesopotamian city where a temple was repeatedly rebuilt.

How many times was the temple at Eridu rebuilt?

The temple was rebuilt more than twenty times, becoming more elaborate each time.

How many cities with major divine sanctuaries existed throughout Mesopotamia?

More than 35 cities had major divine sanctuaries.

What were the city-states of Sumer?

Politically equal states, each with a guardian deity and sanctuary.

What did the layout of cities reflect?

The social hierarchy of society.

Where were important buildings often located?

Important buildings were located toward the outside of the city near the walls.

How did Sumerian and Akkadian gods influence society?

Their gods shaped people's worldview.

What is the Epic of Gilgamesh?

A literary work that depicted the powers of the gods.

Where did each god reside?

Each god occupied a temple in a city.

How did a god's character affect a city?

The god's character shaped the city's character, institutions, and relationships with urban neighbors.

What was the temple considered to be?

The temple was considered the god's estate.

What activities did temples participate in?

Temples engaged in productive and commercial activities.

How large were temple workforces?

Temples employed enormous workforces.

What did temple workshops produce?

Workshops produced textiles and leather goods.

Who worked in temple workshops?

Skilled craftsmen were employed in temple workshops.

Who were the rulers in Mesopotamian society?

Rulers were elites with privileged access to economic and political resources.

How did rulers maintain authority?

Rulers used bureaucracy, priesthood, and law.

Who served the rulers?

Priests and bureaucrats served the rulers.

What occupations determined social status?

Highly specialized occupations helped determine social status.

What were the major social groups in Mesopotamia?

King and priests, bureaucrats, supervisors, craft workers, and workers.

Which social group was the largest?

Workers were the largest social group.

How easy was movement between economic classes?

Movement between economic classes was unusual.

Was social fluidity possible?

Yes, but social fluidity was very difficult and therefore uncommon.

Who dominated the family?

A senior male patriarch dominated the family.

What type of household was common?

The single-family household was common.

How were husbands and wives legally connected?

Husband and wife were bound by a contract.

What was the norm for marriage?

Monogamy was the norm.

When could a second wife be allowed?

A second wife was allowed if the first wife did not have a son.

How were sons' inheritances divided?

Sons inherited in equal shares.

What did daughters receive?

Daughters received dowry gifts.

Why was adoption used?

Adoption was used when there was no male heir.

What type of marriages did most women live in?

Most women lived in contract marriages.

What role could some women have in temples?

A few women joined temples as priestesses.

What rights could female priestesses have?

They could own estates and productive enterprises.

Who remained responsible for women even when they were priestesses?

The woman's father or brothers remained responsible for her.

When did royal palaces appear?

Royal palaces appeared around 2500 BCE.

Who had access to gods and kings?

Gods and kings were only accessible to the elite.

Where were royal palaces located?

They were located on the edge of the city.

What did royal palaces symbolize?

They symbolized secular, military, and administrative authority.

How did rulers connect their status to the gods?

Rulers tied their status to the gods through burial arrangements.

What was the Royal Cemetery at Ur?

A royal burial site containing evidence of royal power and social hierarchy.

What was found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur?

Bodies of sacrificial victims, cooked food, animal bones, drinking vessels, and musical instruments were found.

What did the burial practices at Ur reflect?

Honoring the dead reflected social hierarchies.

Where did the world's first writing system develop?

The world's first writing system developed in Mesopotamia.