Molecular Biology - Functions of Macromolecules

Define the unified cell theory.

1. The cell is the most basic unit of life. 2. All living things are made up of ≥ cell. 3. New cells are made from existing cells.

Name the properties of life

Order/Hierarchy of molecule interactions, Energy processing and general catalysis, Both responsive to (stimuli) and resistant to (homeostasis) environment, reproduction, growth and development directed by a genetic material, regulation of metabolism and material transfer (plasma membranes), adaptation (in individuals) and Evolution (of populations over time)

Name the monomer, polymer and bond of carbohydrates:

monosaccharides, disaccharide/polysaccharide, glycosidic

Name the monomer, polymer and bond of proteins:

amino acids, polypeptide, peptide

Name the monomer, polymer and bonds of nucleic acids:

nucleotides, oligonucleotides/polynucleotides, phosphodiester

Name the monomer, polymer and bond of lipids:

fatty acids + glycerol/sphingosine, triacylglycerol, phospholipids, ester

From purely structural perspective: Sugars are used to build ___ of the 4 macromolecules.

3

_____ can decorate proteins to create signals, or the ____ can be the signal in itself.

Sugar

______ is a glycoprotein hormone that stimulates RBC production.

Erythropoietin

GlcNAc presence is indicative of cellular _____ stores.

energy

What is a chain of amino acids in protein structure?

primary structure

What is the local folding of the polypeptide chain connected by Hydrogen bonds and include α-helices, and β-strands/sheets and turns?

secondary structure

What is the folding of the secondary structure, connected by disulfide linkages and commonly observed sections of tertiary structure called motifs?

tertiary structure

What is the interaction of multiple peptides?

quaternary structure

What is the role of amylase, polymerases, ligases that help with catalysis and make chemical reactions go faster?

enzyme

What is the role of hemoglobin, albumin and carry substances throughout an organism?

transport

What is the role of actin, tubulin, and keratin that construct rigid structures within cells/organs?

Structure

What is the role of insulin, thyroxin, and are chemical signal molecules?

hormones

What is the role of immunoglobulins and function to protect the organism from pathogens?

defense

What is the role of actin, myosin that effect contraction of cellular structure?

motion

What is the role of albumin that are a food source for embryonic organisms?

storage

What is the role of chaperone proteins that help other proteins to fold correctly?

folding

Activators _____ moving forward.

promote

Inhibitors _____ stop forward progress.

prevent

Substrate- level control acts on a ______ step in a pathway.

single

Feedback control targets a _____ step in a pathway.

different

What is the regulation of protein function in an on/off fashion in synthesis vs degradation and all pieces in the proper location

availability

What is the regulation of protein function like a volume dial in adding or subtracting pieces, extra molecules may be required and protein families consist of similar yet distinct proteins?

Activity

____ ____ is a multi-step process that only occurs at certain times in a cell's lifecycle.

Gene expression

Proteins are _____ when they are deemed undesirable or unnecessary.

degraded

Eukaryotes have many compartments, and chemical reactions only occur in certain places in the cell. This regulatory strategy is called _______

compartmentalization

The transmission of ____ ____ , e.g. substrates or ligands, starts with an external cue

signaling molecules

___ ____ are reversible +/- ≥ 1 \"functional groups\" to activate/inactivate the enzyme.

covalent modifications

Name 8 covalent modifications:

phosphorylation, acetylation, myristoylation, ADP ribosylation, farnesylation, γ- Carboxylation, sulfation, ubiquitination

Name common additions in the reversible covalent modifications:

lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, small molecules

What common addition are myristoylate and farnesyl?

lipid

What common addition are ADP-ribose?

nucleic acids

What common addition are blood typing, M6P sorting signal?

carbohydrates

What common addition is ubiquitin?

proteins

What common addition are phosphate, sulfate, acetyl, and methyl?

small molecules

What adds phosphates?

kinases

What removes phosphates?

phosphatases

Phosphates can be activating or ______.

inhibiting

Name the irreversible covalent modification:

the case of proteolytic activation

What are the enzymes that are digestive enzymes, collagenase (development), and caspases (apoptosis) considered?

proteases

What enzymes/proteins need to be cut apart in order to be fully activated?

Proteases, Collagen, Blood Clotting Factors, Insulin/Hormones

What is an effector (activator or inhibitor) molecule that alters substrate binding?

Heteroallostery

The ____ site is where the chemical reaction takes place or work is performed?

active

The _____ site is a different location on the enzyme where an effector binds or regulation occurs.

allosteric

____ = cooperativity: each substrate binding alters subsequent substrate binding efficiency.

homoallostery

In _____ cooperativity, the next substrate has an easier time binding/better binding. In _____ cooperativity, the next substrate has a more difficult time binding/worse binding.

positive, negative

What help in regulation of enzyme activity with metal ions/inorganic?

cofactors

What help in regulation of enzyme activity with vitamins and other macromolecule derivatives/organic?

coenzymes

Protein quaternary structure varies based on the available _____ also called isoforms.

isozymes

Isozymes catalyze the ____ reaction but with _____ efficiencies.

same, different

Name the mix and match subunits of enzyme activity:

heterozygous alleles, homologs (paralogs/gene duplications/evolutionary relations), alternative splicing, monomer vs dimer/trimer/etc., +/- covalent modifications, conformations.

_______ isozymes result in tissue specificity

compartmentalized

_____ expression of isozymes is common in development

temporal

___ _____ participates in the lactic acid fermentation pathway, is a tetramer, and isoforms say where they are expressed in the heart or skeletal muscle.

lactate dehydrogenase LDH

Cells contain two types of nucleic acids:

DNA, RNA

What is the function of DNA?

storage of information

What is the function of RNA?

transport, catalysis, regulation

What is the structure of DNA?

2 strands

What is the structure of RNA?

1 strand

What is the sugar of DNA?

deoxyribose

What is the sugar of RNA?

ribose

What are the pyrimidines of DNA?

C,T

What are the pyrimidines of RNA?

C,U

What are the purines of DNA?

A,G

What are the purines of RNA?

A,G

What are the three parts of nucleotides?

(Deoxy)ribose sugar, A phosphate group, Nitrogenous Base

In DNA the carbons on the sugar are numbered _____ and nucleotides are linked through the phosphate _______ bond to create a chain that runs ____

1'-5', phosphodiester, 5'-3'

What are the four nitrogenous bases of DNA?

The Purines: adenine, guanine, and pyrimidines: Thymine, Cytosine

How many rings do purines have?

2

How many rings do pyrimidines have?

1

Purines always base-pair with _____ creating an ______ double helix of consistent width.

pyrimidines, antiparallel

The ____ ___ ____ states that the cell is the most basic unit of life, all living things are made up of ≥ cell, new cells are made from existing cells.

Unified Cell Theory

Cells must contain a ____ ____ that is passed from one generation to the next and directs the creation of the next generation.

genetic material

What are the 4 characteristics of genetic material?

replication of self, stable storage of information, expression of information, variation through mutation

Explain the transformation experiment done by Frederick Griffith

injects living IIIS virulent mouse dies, injects living IIR avirulent mouse lives, injects heat-killed IIIS mouse lives, mixes heat-killed IIIS and living IIR avirulent mouse dies living IIIS recovered

Who did transformation experiments to confirm active factor was DNA?

Frederick Griffith, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty

Who did bacteriophage confirmation?

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

Genetic material is both _____ and ______ to sustain life.

necessary, sufficient

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology states if DNA is the genetic material, then it must:

1. Template its own replication, 2. Encode the expression of proteins through an RNA intermediate

Nucleoside Triphosphates can be used for:

Making more DNA/RNA, Providing energy ATP and GTP, and Regulating cellular functions GTP

_____ is the regulatory nucleotide.

GTP

G proteins are GTPases: They _____ GTP or removal a phosphate.

hydrolyze

_____ regenerate G proteins by replacing spent GDP with fresh GTP.

GEFs or Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factors

_____ stimulate G proteins to hydrolyze GTP, thereby inactivating the enzyme.

GAPs or GTPase-Activating Proteins

What is the location of carbohydrates in the cell?

storage/vacuole decorating lipids and proteins

Where is the location of proteins in the cell?

everywhere

Where is the location of nucleic acids in the cell?

nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytosol

Where is the location of lipids in the cell?

membranes

What macromolecule's role is molecule identification, protection, and energy production?

carbohydrates

What macromolecule's role is to perform work?

proteins

What macromolecule's role is genetic material, energy, and regulation?

nucleic acids

What macromolecule's role is semi-permeable and membranes?

lipids

What macromolecule is rigid, sticky/slimy?

carbohydrates

What macromolecule is fibers and globules?

proteins

What macromolecule is viscous and snotty?

nucleic acids