unit 2 psych notes 2.1, 2.2, 2.8

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

schemas

a mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, developed from our experiences and beliefs.

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

selective attention 

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

cocktail party effect

the ability to attend to one of the several speech streams while ignoring others 

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth.

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

monocular depth cues

visual cues that allow for the perception of depth and distance using only one eye

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

convergent thinking 

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

functional fixedness 

the tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common use

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

stereotype threat 

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.