Sociology 201 U of C

sociology

The study of society, social behaviors, and social institutions, examining how individuals interact within groups and how societies evolve.

anthropology

The study of human societies, cultures, and their development, focusing on social norms, practices, and the evolution of cultural systems.

economics

The study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, analyzing how individuals and societies allocate resources.

political science

The study of political systems, governance, and political behavior, examining how power and authority are distributed and exercised in society.

psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior, exploring mental processes, emotions, and social interactions.

social work

The profession that focuses on helping individuals, families, and communities to enhance their well-being. It involves advocacy, support, and connection to resources to address social issues.

social imagination

A concept introduced by C. Wright Mills, referring to the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social forces. It encourages understanding how personal circumstances are influenced by social structures.

vertical mosaic

A term used to describe a society (specifically Canadian society) that is a multi-ethnic but also highly stratified by class and power.

structural functionalism

A complex system where different parts (like family, education, economy) work together like organs in a body to maintain stability and meet society’s need, focusing on how these structures function to keep the whole system running smoothly and in balance.

conflict theory

Sees society as a competition for limited resources, where groups struggle for power and dominance, leading to inequality and change, rather than harmony.

symbolic interaction

The idea that society is built through our everyday interactions, where we use language and symbols to create and share meanings, rather than just reacting to each other; our behavior and reality are shaped by these shared, interpreted meanings.

feminist theory

A critical framework analyzing how gender shapes social structures, power

postmodern theory

An approach in sociology that stresses the uncertain nature of societies in which all certainties have been challenged and undermined.

macrosociology

focuses on the “big picture” of society and its institutions (structural functionalism, conflict theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory)

microsociology

focuses on the plans, motivations, and actions of individuals and small groups (symbolic interactionism)

social fact

values, cultural norms, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control

manifest functions

the obvious, intended, and recognized outcomes of a social action or institution

latent functions

the unintended and often unrecognized consequences of social actions, institutions, or behaviors

latent dysfunctions

an unintended, unrecognized, and harmful consequence of a social pattern or action that disrupts social order

total institution

a place where a group of people is cut off from the wider community and their needs are under bureaucratic control

standpoint theory

a sociological framework that argues an individual’s social position, shaped by factors like gender, race, and class, influences their understanding of the world

discources

distinct ways of speaking about some elements of reality

totalitarian

describes a set of beliefs or ideas that dominates (“totally”) all others

totalitarian discource

refers to any universal claim about how knowledge or understanding is achieved

professional sociology

a form of sociology that is concerned primarily with addressing other academic sociologists

critical sociology

a form of sociology that aims to make sure that professional sociologists do not become so lost in esoteric debates that they lose sight of the goals of sociological inquiry

policy sociology

generates sociology data to be used in the development of social policies, laws, rules or plans

research

the search for knowledge

descriptive research

a methodological approach aimed at detailing behaviors, situations, events, and outcomes without delving into theoretical predictions or cause-and-effect relationships

exploratory research

a methodology approach that investigates research questions that have not previously been studied in depth

explanatory research

a type of study that aims to answer “why” and “how” questions by identifying the causes and effects of social phenomena (how things are related to each other)

evaluation research

a systematic approach that employs scientific methodologies to access whether a specific program

research methadology

a system of methods a researcher uses to gather data on a particular research question

research methods

various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in resarch

scientific method

the process scientists follow to solve problems

positivism

a sociological approach that uses scientific methods, like observation ad data analysis, to study as if it were a natural science

quantitative research

focuses on social elements that can be counted or measured, which can therefore be used to generate statistics (macro sociological approach)

qualitative research

is the close examination of characteristics that cannot be counted or measured (micro sociological approach)

ethnography

seeks to uncover the symbols and categories members of the given culture use to interpret their world

participant observation

observing people and actively participating in their activities to obtain and insider’s perspective

semi-structured interviews

informal, face-to-face interviews

informants

insiders who help the research in becoming accepted by the community and assist with the interpretation of information and behavior

case study

research design that takes as its subject a single case or a few selected examples of a social entity such as (community, family, roles, relationship)

narratives

stories people tell about themselves, their situations, and others around them

content analysis

studying a set of cultural artifacts or events and interpreting the themes they reflect

genealogy

seeks to trace the origins of histories of modern discourses

statistics

involves the use of numbers to map social behavior and beliefs

median

represents the number, score, or result that seperates the higher half from the lower half of a given data set

mean (average)

can be found by adding up all the scores and dividing the total by the number of scores you have

operational definitions

transform abstract or theoretical concepts like “poverty” or “middle class” in concrete, observable, measurable entities

variable

concept with measurable traits of characteristics that can vary or change from one person, group, culture, or time to another

absolute poverty

anything below the minimum income levels needed to secure basic necessities

relative poverty

defines poverty relative to median or mean household incomes

poll

a qualitative survey designed to measure respondents’ views on a particular topic or set of topics

closed-ended questionnaires

used to capture respondents’ answers to a set of questions with a set of answer options

open-ended questionnaires

used to capture respondents’ answers to each question without having to select a predetermined response from a list (response cannot be yes or no)

independent variable (IV)

affects other variable (the cause)

dependent variable (DV)

is affected by the IV (the effect)

correlation

describes the relationship between two variables

causation

is the linking of effects to causes

spurious reasoning

occurs when someone sees correlation as falsely assumes causation

spurious variable

a third outside factor that influences both correlating variables

research ethics

entails demonstrating respect for the research subjects

informed consent

given when participants indicate their understanding and acceptance of the resaerch conditions

tangible components

items/symbols that represent a culture in a concrete manner

intangible components

symbolic abstract elements of a culture that can only be interpreted but not concreted

dominant culture

the set of beliefs, values, and practices held by the most powerful group in society

minority cultures

those that fall outside the cultural mainstream

countercultures

minority cultures that feel the power of the dominant culture and exist in opposition to it

subcultures

minority cultures that differ in some way from the dominant culture but don’t directly oppose it

high culture

culture of the elite, a distinct minority

popular culture

culture based on the tastes of ordinary people rather than an educated elite

mass culture

commercial, mass produced culture

norms

rules or standards of behavior that are expected of a group, society, or culture

sanctions

rewards and punishment in response to a particular behavior (positive = good, negative = bad)

folkways

norms that are given day-to-day matters; norms that we should not violate and they are weakly sanctioned (ex: double-dipping chips)

mores

formalized norms that we must not violate and violations met with serious sanctions (ex: stealing, molestation)

taboos

norms that are so deeply ingrained in our social consciousness that the mere thought of mention or it is enough to arouse or disgust or revulsion (ex: incest, CP)

symbols

cultural ites that hold significance for a culture or subculture

values

standards used by a culture to describe abstract qualities such as goodness, beauty, and justice and to assess the behavior of others

ideal culture

is what people believe in (ex: environmentalism)

actual culture

what really exists (ex: driving large SUV's)

ethnocentrism

when someone holds up one culture - usually their own - as being the standard by which all culture are to be judged

eurocentrism

addressing others from broadly defied European position to address others and assuming the audience is or would like to be part of that position

reverse ethnocentrism

someone acceptes the superiority of other’s culture to own culture

cultural globalization

the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe

cultural relativism

the ability to judge figures of the past within their own time and not by today’s standards

presentism

the inability to judge figures of the past within their own time, instead we judge them by today’s standards

sociolinguistics

the study of language as part of culture

dialect

variety of language that differs from others in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar

sapir-whorf hypothesis

describes the relationship between language and culture

linguistic determinism

suggests the the way we view and understand the world is shaped by the language we speak

primary socialization

the period in a person’s life during which they initially learn and develop themselves through experiences and interactions

reverse socialization

a process whereby an adult acquires knowledge, skills,, attitudes, and behavior from children/younger members of society

reciprocal socialization

a bidirectional process where children and parents mutually influence each other’s behavior and development, rather than it being a one-way street

secondary socialization

when a child learns the values, beliefs and attitudes of their culture though those outside the family

anticipatory socialization

the way in which a person begins to think and behave in anticipation of joining a new social group

resocialization

process of unlearning old ways and learning new ones upon moving into a significantly different social environment

achieved status

a status you entered at some stage of your life; you weren’t born into it (academic standings, professional positions)

ascribed status

a status one is born into or enters involuntary (daughter, son, teenager)