political science 1.1 - what is political science? why should you study it?

essentialist understanding of politics, policy

the political sphere as a compatment of society, distinct from other social activities

pragmatic understanding

a more extensive vision, political and transversal to society

politics

political processes and activities

policy

public action

defintion that encompases different dimensions and is precise to what “politique “ is

“what which relates to the government of a society as a whole (lagroye, francois, sawicki)

explain the phrase "that which relates to the goverenment of a society as a whole"

is likely François Lagroye and Frédéric Sawicki's way of defining politics or political phenomena within the context of their sociological and institutional analysis of power.

Lagroye and Sawicki, noted French political sociologists, are known for their emphasis on studying politics as a social construct and as practices tied to governance, authority, and the organization of society. They often explore politics as more than just formal governmental structures; instead, they analyze it in the broader sense of how power is exercised and legitimated in society.

By describing politics in terms of "the government of a society as a whole," they highlight the centrality of governance processes and the structures that organize collective life, encompassing both formal political institutions and broader sociopolitical dynamics.

political science is…..

an academic discipline which aims to understand, on a scientific basis the political functioning of societies

what is not political science

discourse of political actors, work of think tanks, political philosophy, political journalism

what is social science? 3 characteristics:

to explain social by the social, to establish the social causes of social behaviours, 3 major characteristics:

• “Axiological neutrality” (Max Weber): separation of analysis and value judgement

• Ambition of systemization: identify trends and patterns, regularities; rely on theories and concepts (generalization from multiple singular case-studies, etc.)

• Use of scientific methods: qualitative and quantitative (statistics and surveys, interviews, observation, archives, etc.

The specific emergence of political science ,

Key Idea: Political science evolved as a distinct discipline, focusing on the autonomy of politics from economics, morality, and religion.

Foundational Thinkers:

• Aristotle: Analyzed how different forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) led to varying political outcomes like stability or rebellion.

• Other Influential Philosophers:

  • Plato: Ideal forms of governance and justice.

  • Cicero: Natural law and the role of the republic.

  • Machiavelli: Pragmatism in power and governance.

  • Hobbes: Sovereignty as a solution to chaos.

  • Locke: Natural rights and the social contract.

  • Montesquieu: Separation of powers.

  • Madison: Federalism and the balance of interests.

Modern Political Science (Less than 200 Years Old):

• Formal institutions founded to establish political science as an academic field:

  • 1857: Chair in History and Political Science at Columbia University.

  • 1871: École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris.

  • 1895: School of Political Science at Columbia University & London School of Economics (LSE).

  • 1903: Founding of the American Political Science Association (APSA).

Why It Emerged as a Discipline:

• Political science separated itself from:

  • Economics: To focus on power dynamics and governance.

  • Morality and Religion: To adopt an empirical, secular approach to studying politics.

Takeaway:

Political science as a formal discipline is relatively young but builds on centuries of philosophical thought. Its development reflects the growing recognition of politics as a distinct and autonomous field of study.

Aristotle on Government Forms and Political Outcomes

Key Idea: Different forms of government result in varying political outcomes, including stability or rebellion, depending on how power is distributed and exercised.

Types of Government (Aristotle’s Classification):

1. Correct (Just) Forms – Govern for the common good:

   • Monarchy: Rule by one in the interest of all.

     • Outcome: Stable, but risks degenerating into tyranny.

   • Aristocracy: Rule by a few virtuous individuals for the common good.

     • Outcome: Stable, but can become an oligarchy.

   • Polity: Rule by the many for the benefit of all.

     • Outcome: Most stable form, combining democracy and oligarchy principles.

2. Deviant (Unjust) Forms – Govern for personal or class interest:

   • Tyranny: Monarchy corrupted into rule for one’s own benefit.

     • Outcome: Oppression and rebellion.

   • Oligarchy: Aristocracy corrupted into rule by the wealthy few.

     • Outcome: Inequality, social unrest, and revolts.

   • Democracy: Polity corrupted into rule by the poor majority for self-interest.

     • Outcome: Instability due to mob rule and disregard for minority rights.

Key Insights on Stability and Rebellion:

• Governments thrive when they prioritize the common good over individual or factional interests.

• Corruption of just forms leads to instability and rebellion.

• The middle class plays a crucial role in ensuring stability, as excessive wealth disparity fuels conflict.

• A balanced constitution, like a polity, is the best safeguard against rebellion, as it integrates diverse interests.

Takeaway:

Aristotle emphasizes that the stability of a government depends on justice, balance, and inclusivity. Deviations from these principles lead to unrest and eventual collapse.

political science: a crossroads discipline: several brances

Key Idea: Political science is a multidisciplinary field intersecting with various branches, each focusing on different aspects of politics and governance.

Branches of Political Science:

1. Political Theory and Political Institutions (Polity):

   Focus: Theoretical foundations of politics, ideas, ideologies, and structures of governance.

2. Political Sociology (Politics):

   3. Policy Analysis (Policies):

   4. International Relations: Focus: Interactions between states and global actors.

Takeaway:

Political science is a crossroads discipline encompassing multiple branches, each addressing unique dimensions of politics—from theoretical frameworks and societal dynamics to public policies and global affairs.

BELGIUM’S ETERNAL ASYLUM CRISIS - Refugee activists worry about the winter as Belgian government plows ahead with policy that court tried to halt. BY CLAUDIA CHIAPPA - SEPTEMBER 19, 2023

Belgium is facing criticism for its handling of asylum seekers as the federal government continues to implement a controversial policy denying shelter to single male asylum seekers, despite the country's top administrative court ruling against it. State Secretary for Asylum and Migration Nicole de Moor justifies the policy as a measure to prioritize families and children amid a lack of resources, claiming there are no additional spots available.

Critics, including lawyers, NGOs, and the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), argue that the policy violates asylum seekers' rights and EU law, leaving many migrants on the streets. Belgium has previously been condemned by its courts and the European Court of Human Rights for failing to provide adequate shelter.

Activists blame the crisis on a lack of political will rather than capacity, pointing to missed opportunities like a distribution plan among Belgian communes. Critics view the crisis as self-inflicted, caused by deliberate underinvestment in reception facilities and failure to implement legal solutions.

3. WHY SHOULD LAW STUDENTS BE INTERESTED IN POLITICAL SCIENCE?

Some thoughts…

• A legal system appears in a context

• Legal decisions happen in a context

• Policy and Law are intertwined: the examples of the upcoming elections

• International Law as an indicator to grasp the political and power struggle

resulting in Law in general

• Law as a tool in the hands of power

• The issue of civic responsibility, citizenship and egagement

(but also)

• Interdisciplinary perspective

• Career opportunities

• Critical thinking and analysis

• etc

Who could vote in Belgium’s history?

Key Idea: Voting rights in Belgium evolved alongside the development of the state, reflecting societal structures and political changes.

Historical Progression of Voting Rights in Belgium:

1. Restricted Voting for Taxpayers (19th Century):

   • Eligibility: Only men who paid taxes could vote.

   • Exclusion: Women were barred as they typically did not earn incomes and thus did not pay taxes.

   • Reflects early census suffrage, where economic contribution dictated political participation.

2. Creation of Modal Administration:

   • The development of a modern administrative structure to manage the growing complexities of governance.

   • Bureaucracy began to formalize, centralizing power and decision-making processes.

3. Emergence of Political Science:

   • Coincided with the professionalization and institutionalization of state administration.

   • Key Change: The state transformed into an administrative body managing the affairs of its citizens, aligning with the broader societal shifts toward democratization and inclusivity.

Takeaway:

Belgium’s voting rights began with narrow economic criteria and expanded as the state developed into a modern administrative entity, reflecting broader changes in societal organization and the emergence of political science as a discipline.

class vs gender

Conclusion: a gendered perspective on political science

Key Idea: Political science has been notably resistant to incorporating gender studies, reflecting its traditional focus and institutional biases.

Key Points on Gender and Political Science:

1. Political Science as a “Science of the State”:

   • Early focus on the state and formal institutions marginalized topics like gender, which were considered outside the realm of "serious" political inquiry.

   • This narrow scope excluded issues related to the private sphere, where gendered dynamics are often most visible.

2. Class vs. Gender Focus:

   • Political science traditionally emphasized class-based analysis, often overshadowing gender as a category of study.

   • The intersection of class and gender—key in understanding broader power dynamics—was underexplored.

3. Late Feminization and the Glass Ceiling:

   • Political science saw delayed participation and recognition of women compared to other disciplines.

   • Despite increased representation, the glass ceiling persists, limiting women’s advancement to leadership roles in academia and political institutions.

Takeaway:

Political science’s resistance to gender studies stems from its traditional focus on state-centric, class-based analyses and its slow adaptation to inclusivity. Addressing this requires greater integration of gender perspectives into political inquiry and institutional reform to overcome the glass ceiling.

What gender does to political science?

Key Idea: Gender challenges and reshapes traditional understandings of political science by revealing how politics produces and perpetuates gendered power dynamics and by expanding the scope of what is considered "political."

1. The Political Production of Gender:

• Gender as a Political Construct:

  • Gender is not merely a biological or social category but is shaped and reinforced by political systems and policies.

  • Political structures and processes influence gender roles and inequalities.

• Examples of Political Production:

  • Laws regulating family life, reproductive rights, and workplace equality.

  • Representation and participation of women in political institutions.

2. Shifting the Boundaries of Politics:

• Expanding the Definition of Politics:

  • Gender studies reveal that politics is not confined to formal institutions like governments or parliaments.

  • The "personal is political" highlights that private sphere issues (family, sexuality, domestic labor) are deeply political.

• Challenging Traditional Norms:

  • Brings attention to how traditional political science excluded issues like patriarchy, domestic violence, and care work.

  • Gender studies broaden political science to include power dynamics in everyday life.

Impact on Political Science:

• Gender studies decenter male-centric perspectives, pushing for more inclusive analyses.

• They critique and question the foundational assumptions of political theories, such as concepts of power, authority, and legitimacy, to include gendered dimensions.

• By shifting boundaries, gender studies challenge the scope and methodology of political science, leading to richer, more comprehensive analyses.

Takeaway:
Gender studies transform political science by highlighting how politics produces gendered inequalities and by expanding the discipline’s scope to consider issues previously excluded from political analysis.

The term “political” in political science:

is polysemic and the definition of what is political also changes according to the period.

The definition of “political” oscillates between:

two understandings: an “essentialist” and a “pragmatic” understanding, which is the most common one today and which relies on an extensive vision of the political as something that is transversal to society.

what is political, typology which distinguishes between 3 different dimensions of what political science studies:

Key Idea: Political science studies the "political" through a typology distinguishing three interrelated dimensions: polity, politics, and policy.

1. Polity:

• Focus: The institutional and structural dimension.

• Key Characteristics:

  Deals with the framework within which political processes occur.

  Includes constitutions, legal systems, government structures, and formal rules.

• e.g Separation of powers, Federal vs. unitary systems.

2. Politics:

• Focus: The dynamic and processual dimension.

• Key Characteristics:

  Involves power relations, conflicts, cooperation, and decision-making processes.

  Examines the behavior and interactions of political actors such as parties, interest groups, and citizens.

  E.g , Electoral campaigns, Political negotiations and conflicts.

3. Policy:

• Focus: The content and outcome dimension.

• Key Characteristics:

  Examines public policies and the decisions taken to address societal issues.

  Focuses on how policies are formulated, implemented, and evaluated.

• E.g Education reforms, Environmental policies.

Takeaway:

Political science integrates the study of polity (structures), politics (processes), and policy (outcomes) to comprehensively analyze how political systems operate and impact society.

It is possible to keep in mind a single definition which encompass the difference between politics and policy, that is

“that which relates to the government of society as a whole” (Lagroye, François, Sawicki). In this sense, the government of a society being the capacity of certain groups or individuals to direct life in society, to guide the behaviours of all members of society, to promulgate rules that apply to all and to be able to enforce them.

In essence, politics is the process of governing and guiding the behavior of society, whereas policy refers to the specific decisions and actions taken within that process. Politics shapes the rules and authority, and policy focuses on practical solutions to societal issues

Three characteristics constitute political science as a social science:

1. Axiological Neutrality:

• Definition:

  • The commitment to value-neutrality in research.

  • Researchers aim to avoid letting their personal beliefs, values, or biases influence their analysis.

• Why Important:

  • Ensures objectivity in studying political phenomena.

  • Allows for the separation of facts from normative judgments (what is vs. what ought to be).

2. Ambition of Systematization:

• Definition:

  • The goal of organizing and classifying knowledge into coherent, logical systems.

  • Political science seeks to identify patterns, relationships, and structures in political life.

• Why Important:

  • Helps build theoretical frameworks for understanding and explaining political processes.

  • Facilitates the comparison of political systems, behaviors, and outcomes.

• Example:

  • Typologies of government (e.g., Aristotle’s classification of regimes).

3. Use of Rigorous Methods:

• Definition:

  • Employing scientific and systematic methods to ensure research is reliable and valid.

  • Includes both quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, statistical analysis) and qualitative methods (e.g., case studies, interviews).

• Why Important:

  • Provides credibility and replicability to research findings.

  • Allows political science to move beyond speculation and rely on empirical evidence.

• Examples of Methods:

  • Comparative analysis of electoral systems.

  • Statistical modeling of voter behavior.

Takeaway:

These principles—axiological neutrality, systematization, and rigorous methods—are essential for establishing political science as a scientific discipline that produces reliable and objective insights into political phenomena.