Exam 1 - Macronutrients and Energy Transfer

what is a macronutrient?

substrates in energy metabolism that contain energy

examples: CHO, Proteins, Fats

what are micronutrients?

metabolic regulators, coenzymes in energy and overall metabolism

examples: vitamins, mineral, water

list important aspects of CHO

• main energy food

• most efficient energy substrate

• Aawater factor: 4 Kcal/g

• acceptable distb. range: 45-65%

list important aspects of fats

• important and most abundant energy source

• atwater factor: 9 Kcal/g

• acceptable distb. range: 20-35%

list important aspects of proteins

• energy source

• tissue builder

• enzyme and metabolic regulator

• atwater factor: 4 Kcal/g

• acceptable distb. range: 10-35%

what type of metabolic regulator or coenzyme are vitamins?

• organic regulator

• cofactors

what type of metabolic regulator or coenzyme are minerals?

• inorganic regulator

• cofactors

where do most CHO come from in the human diet?

most CHO come from plants, except for lactose and glycogen from animal sources

what are monosaccharides?

• basic unit of CHO

• examples: glucose, fructose, and galactose

• most prominent is glucose

what is glucose a product of?

gluconeogenesis

what are oligosaccharides?

• 2-10 monosaccharides chemically bonded

• examples: disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, and maltose

what are polysaccharides?

• 3 to 1,000s of sugar molecule linkages

• examples: amylose, amylopectin (starch), and glycogen

what type of process is photosynthesis?

endergonic

what are examples of indigestible CHO?

• leaves, wood, bark

what are examples of digestible CHO?

• fruits, grains, vegetables

described the structure of cellulose

• linear polymers of D-glucose

• forms plant walls

describe the structure of hemicellulose

• cross-linked polymers of multiple monosaccharides

describe crystalline structure

• glucose polymer

• amorphous polysaccharide matrix

what is photosynthesis?

• conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in plants

• occurs in chloroplasts

• net reaction: 6 H2O + 6CO2 → 6 O2 + C6H12O6

where does photosynthesis occur?

• in cholorplasts

  • thylakoid membrane (coins or folded discs of cholorplast)

  • stroma (cytoplasm of chloroplast)

where is the site of light independent or dark reaction?

stroma

what is the site of light independent or dark reactions?

stroma

what is the site of light dependent or light reactions?

thylakoid membrane

what are the two main CHO products of photosynthesis?

• glucose

  • fructose

what are the parts of the calvin-benson cycle?

• carbon fixation

• reduction

• regeneration of ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate

what occurs during carbon fixation of the calvin benson cycle?

• attaching of an inorganic carbon to an organic compound

• uses RuBisCO to fix CO2 to RuBP and produce 2, 3-PGA

what is reduction in the calvin-benson cycle?

• formation of 3-PGA in to 3 carbon sugar G3P

• NADPH donates electrons to make G3P

what is regeneration in the calvin-benson cycle?

• ATP used to either

  • make some of the G3P to produce glucose

  • recycled to regenerate RuBP acceptor

what type of group does glucose/dextrose and galactose have ?

aldehyde group

what type of group does fructose have?

ketone group

what oligosaccharide does glucose + glucose make?

maltose

what type of oligosaccharide does galactose + glucose make?

lactose

what type of oligosaccharide does glucose + fructose make?

sucrose

what is high fiber intake associated with?

• lower

  • rates of diabetes

  • insulin resistance

  • hypertension

what is the role of dietary fiber in cholestrol absorption, synthesis, and insulin release?

• decreased insulin release

• decreased fat/CHO absorption

• increase bile excretion

• reduced HMG-CoA reductase activity

what is a physiological effect of both soluble and insoluble dietary fibers?

• decrease transit time of glucose

• increased transit rate of glucose

what is cholesterol?

• sterol found only in animal products

• manufactured in liver from CHO, fatty acids, and protein

• precursor for vitamin D, mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid, and gonadal hormones

what is the main enzyme of glycogen synthesis?

hexokinase

describe the roles of CHO in metabolism

• energy source

• protein sparer

• metabolic primer

• substrate for central nervous system

describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates

• digestion

  • enzymatic activity

• absorption

  • diffusion

  • facilitated diffusion

  • active transport

what is osmosis?

• net movement of water across selective permeable membrane

• moves from low to high concentrations

what is diffusion?

• random, uniform, continuous movement across selective permeable membrane

• moves from high to low

what is facilitated diffusion?

• movement across membrane by carrier molecule

• moves from high to low

what is active transport?

• energy requiring movement

• moves from low to high

how to CHO react to high-intensity exercise?

adequate CHO availibility needed to maintain high intensity aerobic performance

what are simple lipids?

• consist of triglycerols (TAG)

what types of bonds do monosaturated fatty acids have?

• one double bond C=C

what types of bonds to polyunsaturated fatty acids have?

• two or more double bonds C=C, C=C

what type of bonds do saturated fatty acids have?

• all single bonds C-C

what type of bonds to CIS unsaturated fatty acids have?

• H atoms same side of double bond

what type of bonds to TRANS unsaturated fatty acids have?

• H atoms on opposite side of double bonds

how does the lipolysis of triacylglycerols occur?

• horomone sensitve lipase

• capillary membrane-bound lipoprotein lipase

what are the affects of trans fatty acids?

• increase amount of LDL-C (bad cholesterol)

• decrease amount of HDL-C (good cholesterol)

what are functions of phospholipids?

• modulate fluid movement across cells

• structural integrity of cell

• blood clotting

• structural integrity to insulating sheath of nerve fibers

what is the role of lipids in the body?

• important energy source and reserve

• protection of vital organs

• thermal insulation

• vitamin carrier

what is the best recommendation to achieving a health weight and improve fitness?

exercise at the highest safe intensity appropriate for their age, health, motivation, and current fitness level

what is common to all amino acids?

• NH2 group (amino group)

• CH group

• COOH group (carboxylic acid group)

what is unique to amino acids?

• R side chain

what are types of peptide bonds?

• dipeptide

• tripeptide

• polypeptide

what are the steps of protein formation?

• assembly

  • formation of primary structure

• folding

  • polypeptides folded to prepare for 3-D structures

• packing

  • formation of 3-D structures

• interaction

  • two or more polypeptides join to form a complex

what are amino acids the body cannot synthesize?

• isoleucine

• leucine

• lysine

• methionine

• phenylalnine

• threonine

• typtophan

• valine

• histidine

what are complete protein?

• contain all amino acids

what are incomplete proteins?

• proteins lacking one or more amino acids

what is a limiting amino acids?

• limited in supply of a particular food

• can become a complete amino with a complimentary protein

what helps in the digestion and absorption of proteins?

• pepsin

  • enzymatic hydrolysis

• trypsin and chymotrypsin

  • continues enzymatic hydrolysis

describe the role of proteins in the body?

• 12-15% of body mass

• major sources of body protein

  • blood plasma

  • connective tissue

  • enzymes

  • receptors

  • peptide hormones

  • blood clotting

  • muscle

what is deamination?

• process of nitrogen removal forming urea that leaves body as urine

what do remaining carbon skeletons from deamination followi?

• gluconeogenesis by liver

• energy source

• fatty acid synthesis

what happens due to positive and negative nitrogen balance?

• protein used for structure

  • growing children, during pregnancy, recovery

• preotein catabolism for energy

  • diabetes, fever, burns. dieting

describe energy

• ability to perform work

• cannot be created or destroyed, but can transform from one form to another

• total energy system = kinetic + potential

what is potential energy?

• associated with substances structure or position

what is biosynthesis?

• energy bound in one substance directly transferring to another

• increases potential energy

define gibbs free energy

• work of potential system under standard conditions of

  • temp, pressure, pH, substrate, product

describe exergonic energy

• decline in G

• energy release, substrates > products

• downhill or decline in free energy

describe endergonic energy

• increase in G

• energy storage, substrates < products

• uphill or increase in free energy

what is the second law of thermodynamics?

• potential energy tends to degrade to kinetic energy with decreased capacity for work

is anabolic reactions exergonic or endergonic?

endergonic

is catabolic reactions exergonic or endergonic?

exergonic

what type of process is cell respirations

• exergonic

• reverse of photosynthesis

what are biological works in the human body that use energy?

• chemical

• mechanical

• transport

what are factors that affect the rate of bioenergetics?

• enzymes

  • protein catalysts

• Coenzymes

  • vitamins and minerals

• irreversible enzyme catalyzed reactions

  • less common, large G

• reversible enzyme catalyzed reactions

  • more common, smaller G

describe oxidoreductase

• catalyzes the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another

• redox reaction

  • example: NAD+ → NADH H+, FAD → FADH2

what is oxidation?

• product loses electrons and H+ (OIL)

• give oxygen from another or remove hydrogen

what is reduction?

• Product gains electrons and H+ (RIG)

• remove oxygen from another or give hydrogen

describe transferases

• catalyze the transfer of a functional group from one molecule to another

• types of enzymes: kinase, transaminase, and transcarboxylases

• example: amino acid 1 + keto-acid → amino acid 2 + glutamate

describe hydrolases

• catalyze a step in catabolic pathway where H2O is added to a substrate to form two smaller products

• example: triacylglycerol + 3 H2O to glycerol + 3 fatty acids

describe lyases

• catalyzes breakage of chemical bonds by mechanism other than hydration or oxidation

• example: fructose 1-6-bisphosphate → glyceraldehyde 3-phosphase + dihydroacetone phosphate

describe isomerases

• catalyze rearrangement of atoms in the substrate molecule into a product molecule with the same chemical formula as substrate

• example: glucose 6-phosphate → fructose 6-phosphate

describe mutases

• catalyze the movement of a functional group from one atom to another within the same molecule

• example: 3-phosphoglycerate → 2-phosphoglycerate

describe ligases

• catalyze union of two substrate molecules into a larger product molecule with hydrolysis of a diphosphate bond

• example: Pyruvate + ATP + HCO3- → Oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi + ATP + HCO3- → Oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi