PSYC0001 Terms and Concepts

empirical approach

an evidence based method that draws on observation and experimentation

critical thinking

thinking that doesn't automatically accept arguments and conclusions

structuralism

classify and understand elements of the mind's structure

functionalism

going beyond labeling inner thoughts and feelings by considering their evolved functions eg. why does the brain think?

behaviorism

belief that psychology should be an objective science studying behavior without reference to mental processes

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

cognitive psychology

the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature–nurture issue

How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development?

natural selection

among chance variations, nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a specific environment

evolutionary psychology

How are we humans alike because of our shared biology and evolutionary history?

behavior genetics

How do we individually differ because of our differing genes and environments?

culture

shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next

positive psychology

Understanding and developing the emotions and traits that help us to thrive

biopsychosocial approach

integrates the biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

basic research

research that builds psychology’s knowledge base

applied research

research tackling practical problems

counseling psychology

help people to cope with challenges and crises

clinical psychology

assessing and treating people with mental, emotional, and behavior disorders

psychiatry

Prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders

community psychology

Psychology aiming to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all

testing effect

Phenomenon that repeated self-testing and rehearsal of previously studied material helps students learn more

SQ3R

Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

hindsight bias

The outcome seems obvious only after it happens

peer reviewers

Other scientists who evaluate a study’s theory, originality, and accuracy

theory

Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations

hypothesis

A testable prediction

operational definition

Precise, measurable definitions of procedures and concepts that psychologists use to report their research

replication

Repeating original observations with different participants or circumstances in a different study

preregistration

Publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses

case study

Examines one individual or group in depth to reveal truths applicable to everyone

naturalistic observation

A descriptive method involving recording responses in natural environments

survey

Looks at many cases, asking people to report their behavior or opinions

random sample

When every person in the entire population has an equal chance of being included in the sample group

population

All those in a group being studied

correlation

When one trait or behavior tends to coincide with another

correlation coefficient

The statistical measure of correlation, helps figure out the direction and strength of two traits

variable

A factor in a study that is able to change

scatterplot

A graph using dots to represent different values

illusory correlation

Falsely assuming a relationship where there is none

regression toward the mean

A statistical phenomenon where extreme results are caused by unfortunate combinations; extraordinary happenings tend to be followed by more ordinary ones

experiment

To identify cause and effect, enables researchers to isolate the effects of one or more variables

experimental group

The group where people receive the treatment

control group

The group where people do not receive the treatment, contrasted with the experimental group

random assignment

Experimenters do this to minimize any preexisting differences between the two groups

double-blind procedure

Neither the participants nor the researchers will know which group is receiving the treatment

placebo effect

The effect where just thinking you are getting a treatment can boost your spirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptoms.

independent variable

Researchers can vary this independently of other variables

confounding variable

Variables that can potentially influence a study’s results

dependent variable

A variable that changes depending on what occurs during the experiment

informed consent

According to ethics codes, potential participants must do this before taking part in an experiment

debriefing

Explaining the research afterward, including any temporary deception, to the participants afterward

motivations

Arises from the interplay of nature (body) and nurture (personal experiences, cultures); drives our behavior

Instinct

A complex behavior with a fixed pattern throughout a species, can be unlearned

Physiological needs

Needs creating an aroused, motivated state eg. food, water

Drive-reduction theory

Theory explaining that when a physiological need increases, so does our psychological drive to reduce it

Homeostasis

“staying the same,” maintenance of steady internal state

Incentives

positive or negative environmental stimuli that lure or repel us

Yerkes-Dodson law

Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance

Hierarchy of needs

Priority of needs described by Maslow, often envisioned as a pyramid; psychological needs form the base

glucose

A resource the body monitors to prevent energy deficits and maintain a stable body weight

Set point

The stable weight the body tries to maintain through physiological mechanisms.

Basal metabolic rate

The resting rate of energy expenditure for maintaining basic body functions

Obesity

A BMI measurement of 30 or higher

Sexual orientation

The direction of sexual motivation

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder where individuals obsessively focus over losing weight; usually college-aged women

Bulimia nervosa

A cycle of repeated episodes of binge eating and weight loss; weight fluctuations within or above typical ranges

Binge-eating disorder

The most common eating disorder, involves preoccupation with food and binging followed by remorse

Sleep

Strengthens our mind and body, improves the ability to remember things, manage emotions, stay alive

Circadian rhythm

Our internal biological clock

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep accompanied by energetic brain activity

Alpha waves

Relatively slow waves from an awake, relaxed state

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences occurring without sensory stimulus from the outside world

Delta waves

Large, slow waves emitted during slow-wave sleep, difficult to awaken from

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of grain-of-rice-sized, 10,000-cell clusters in the hypothalamus

Social scripts

The guide for how people should act in certain situations dictated by culture

Groupthink

Phenomenon where group members suppress personal dissenting views, creating the illusion of unanimous support

Attribution theory

Theory that you can attribute behavior to a person’s stable, enduring traits or the situation

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency when analyzing behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation, and overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitudes

Predispose our reactions to objects, people and events

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

People agreeing to a small request find it easier to comply later with a larger one

Role

A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in that position ought to behave

Cognitive dissonance theory

To relieve the tension between our attitudes and actions, we change our attitudes to line up with past actions

Peripheral route persuasion

Uses attention-getting cues to trigger speedy, emotion-based judgments

Central route persuasion

Evidence and arguments that trigger careful thinking; participants actively processing a message are more likely to retain it

Norms

A set of expectations that social influence stems from

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative social influence

The need to belong to avoid rejection or gain social approval

Informational social influence

The need to conform because of trust in group accuracy

Social facilitation

Strengthened performance in others’ presence

Social loafing

Exerting less effort as a part of a group compared to being alone

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and self-restraint when group participation makes people aroused and anonymous

Group polarization

Beliefs and attitudes grow stronger when discussed with like-minded people

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Diffusion of responsibility

When people share responsibility for helping, individuals are less likely to help

Bystander effect

Bystanders are less likely to help if other bystanders are present

Social exchange theory

Theory that self-interest underlies all human interactions, and our constant goal is maximizing rewards while minimizing costs

Reciprocity norm

The expectation we should help, not harm, those who have helped us

Social-responsibility norm

Expectation that we should help those who need our help even if costs outweigh the benefits