classical school of criminology
A perspective premised on the belief that potential criminals, as rational beings capable of free will, will be deterred by the threat of swift and severe punishment.
Free Will
Beccaria embraced this concept
Certainty of the Punishment
Swiftness of Justice
Fair penalties proportionate to the severity of social harm done
Beccaria’s 3 Basic Conditions
equality, liberty, utilitarianism, and humanitarianism
4 General Principles in Beccaria’s Doctrine
utilitarianism
The concept that any law should be of the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people.
commitment costs (an arrest may have an adverse effect on future opportunities, such as employment)
attachment costs (an arrest can result in harm to personal circumstances)
stigma (an arrest can damage one’s personal and/or public image).
3 Indirect Social Costs of Arrest
recidivism
reoffending
Michel Foucault
most influential modern-day revisionist on the subject of punishment, argued that punishment is an interrelationship of power, knowledge, and the body that is affected by factors such as economics, social development, political ideologies, and transformations in mass communication: there is no one-size-fits-all model
deterrence theory
The belief that the threat of punishment can prevent people from committing a crime.
Specific (learn through punishment; associative learning)
General (learn through experience of others; imitative learning)
2 Levels of Deterrence
Law and Science in Conflict
Jeffery noted a lack of integration between the two as there is an inherent conflict in how we study crime and criminal behaviour
neoclassical school of criminology
A school of criminological thought positing that some accused offenders should be exonerated or treated leniently in light of circumstances that make it impossible to exercise free will.
Luigi Rossi and Henri Joly
two fundamental respects in the neoclassical school:
rejected rigidity of the classical system of punishment
called for higher degree of subjectivity when assessing criminal responsibility (discretion)
discretion
The power of an authority to exercise his or her judgement in a particular case instead of having to follow specific rules.
just deserts policy
The idea that an individual who commits an offence chooses to do so and therefore deserves to be punished for it.
plea bargain
incentive for the accused to plead guilty in return for some benefit, like reduced sentence
Alexander Maconochie
came up with 5 ideas for prison reform:
sentences should be based on the prisoner's ability to complete a specified quantity of labor
quantity of labor should depend on gravity of offence
prisoners should earn everything they receive
all prisoners working together are responsible for one another’s conduct
attention should be given before release dates for ease in preparing for release into society
4 major contributions summarized by Barry (incorporated into Canada’s penal system)
reward (earn their release)
individual influence (# of inmates < 300 & <100)
gradual release (e.g. halfway houses)
strict supervision after discharge
John Howard
instrumental in establishing prisoner advocacy groups that fought for maximum and minimum sentences, a system for the classification of inmates based on their moral improvement, and separation of adults and young offenders
bureaucracy
foundation of modern policing as it was the solution that emerged from the problems faced in the industrial revolution
Sir Robert Peel
known for his ideas in policing as he reorganized London’s metropolitan police force, instituting uniforms and strict discipline, banning the bearing of firearms, and establishing the fundamental principles that still govern policing today
bobbies (Peel’s officers)
Isaac Ray
argued that the legal definition of insanity was limited in scope and argued that criminals can experience moral insanity
moral insanity
A form of mental illness in which the offender’s ability to reason is temporarily interrupted. It is the basis of modern verdicts of temporary insanity or “not criminally responsible” for offenders whose crimes were the product of mental illness.
criminal responsibility
ability to appreciate the nature of an unlawful act and know that it is wrong
No, instead they can be found “not criminally responsible (NCR)” - part of the tough on crime agenda
Is Insanity in Canada accepted as a legal defence?
Criminalistics
The science of crime detection and investigation, including such areas of specialization as weapons and DNA analysis.
Alphonse Bertillon
modern-day criminalist who first applied Criminalistics (anthropological technique) to law and criminology and used a variety of instruments to take precise measurements of physical features
Marc Ancel
fourth school of criminological thought might be emerging, the school of (new) social defence
neopositivist
An approach to criminal justice popular between the 1930s and 1960s, which focused on the development of rational penal policy, emphasizing the systematic resocialization of offenders through treatment and rehabilitation.
classical school of criminology
A perspective premised on the belief that potential criminals, as rational beings capable of free will, will be deterred by the threat of swift and severe punishment.;Free Will
Homicide
The act of causing the death of another person, whether directly or indirectly, by an unlawful act or by negligence
culpable (deserving blame) homicide is a criminal offence, while non-culpable homicide is not. killing another person without forethought or intent
First Degree Murder, Second Degree Murder, Manslaughter, Infanticide
4 Subcategories of Homicide
note: murder is also subcategorized based on the offender’s intent and the nature of the act that causes the victim’s death
Murder
different from homicide as this refers more narrowly to the unlawful, often planned, and deliberate taking of another person’s life
(a) the planned, deliberate killing of another person
(b) the killing of an on-duty police officer or prison guard
(c) the killing of another person while committing sexual assault, hijacking or terrorism, criminal harassment, or crimes on behalf of a criminal organization
Second Degree Murder
the unplanned but deliberate killing of another person, as well as all murder that falls outside the category of first-degree murder
Manslaughter
the unintentional killing of another person, even if it results from an intention to cause harm
Infanticide
intentional or unintentional killing of a newborn child, through deliberate actions or through acts of omission (i.e., negligence)
Homicide Rates, Trends, and Patterns
2017 Homicide rate higher than average because of Quebec and BC
2017 highest provincial homicide rate was in western provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, then Alberta)
Weapon Preference Over the Years: stabbing 2012-2015 → firearms (handguns) 2016
Most Homicides are committed by someone known to the victim
Gang Homicide peak 2018 → fluctuated → decline 2014 → rise 2015-2016 (most in Toronto, Ottawa, and Vancouver)
2016, 18% of intimate-partner homicides and 25% of indigenous homicides
general theory of crime
A sociological perspective asserting that criminal behaviour is a product of defective socialization processes that make it difficult for a potential offender to exercise self-control.
power–control theory
A sociological perspective that focuses on how power dynamics, patriarchy, and gender role socialization within the family contribute to delinquency and crime.
Level 1 assault (s. 271): No serious bodily harm or physical injury to the victim. This type of assault is also known as common assault.
Level 2 assault (s. 272): More force or threatened force (e.g., with weapon) is used, and a degree of bodily harm was inflicted by the offender, such as broken bones, bruises, or cuts. A slap across the face does not constitute a level 2 assault.
Level 3 assault (s. 273): The victim is disfigured, maimed, wounded, or has his or her life endangered. This type of assault is also known as aggravated assault.
18-24 yrs. old more likely to be victims of sexual assault
three levels of sexual assault in the criminal cod