Chapter 37 The Eisenhower Era 1952–1960

How did the post-WWII economic boom affect American life in the 1950s?

With more money, people started buying homes like never before. One out of every four homes in 1960 had been built in the 1950s, and most of these were in the suburbs.

How did science and technlogy contribute to the post-war economic boom?

The invention of the transistor in 1948 caused a revolution in electronics, especially in computers. The first electronic computers, built in the 1940s, were very large machines with lots of wires and unreliable vacuum tubes. Transistors made it possible to make computers much smaller and incredibly fast.

What was the International Business Machines (IBM)?

It was a computer company and became a “high-tech” company in the emerging “information age".”

What is the information age?

The Information Age refers to the period beginning in the late 20th century characterized by a shift from an economy based on manufacturing to one dominated by information technology. This transformation enabled rapid access to information through digital communication and the internet, fundamentally changing the way people work, communicate, and interact. As various social reform movements emerged during this era, the dissemination of information played a crucial role in mobilizing public opinion and advocating for change.

What were the effects of computers?

Computers changed how businesses did things like billing and managing what they had in stock. They also opened up new possibilities in areas like airline schedules, fast printing, and communication.

What was the growth of the aerospace industry in the 1950s like?

It grew thanks to Eisenhower's strong support for building up the Strategic Air Command (a part of the military) and a growing business in passenger airlines. . There were also connections between making military and civilian airplanes. In 1957, Boeing, a company based in Seattle, introduced the first large passenger jet, the "707." Its design was based on the earlier development of the B-52, a long-range bomber for the military.

How did the work people were doing change in the 1950s?

A significant shift happened in 1956 when "white-collar" workers (those in office jobs) outnumbered "blue-collar" workers (those in factory or manual labor jobs) for the first time. This showed a move away from an industrial economy to one based on services.

Why did the power of labor unions decrease?

the industries that supported them, like manufacturing, declined.

What happened to women after WWII ended?

After World War II ended, many women, including those who had worked in factories during the war, went back to traditional roles as wives and mothers. This was also the time of the "baby boom," with many women having lots of children.

What was popular culture like concerning women in the 50s?

Popular culture celebrated these traditional roles. Television shows in the 1950s, like "Ozzie and Harriet" or "Leave It to Beaver," showed ideal suburban families with a working husband, two kids, and a wife who stayed home. For many white, middle-class Americans, this was how they really lived.

How did the increase in white-collar jobs create new opportunities for women?

Out of about 40 million new jobs created in the three decades after 1950, more than 30 million were in office and service work. Women filled most of these new jobs. They benefited the most from the job growth after the war, creating a large group of jobs mainly held by women, often called a "pink-collar ghetto."

What were the effects of women getting white collar jobs?

It transformed women’s roles and even the nature of the American family.

What social changes occurred due to the job opportunities that opened up for women in the 1950s?

The increased job opportunities for women in the 1950s triggered significant social shifts. While some saw it as a return to the past, reminiscent of when women worked alongside men on farms, the reality of urban life was different. Women now faced the dual responsibilities of working outside the home and managing household duties, which led to important questions about family dynamics and traditional gender roles. This period set the stage for a growing movement advocating for women's rights and equality in the years that followed.

Who was Betty Friedan and what did she do?

She was a feminist who brought attention to and fueld women’s feelings in 1963 when she published "The Feminine Mystique." This book was a huge bestseller and is considered a classic of feminist writing that started the modern women's movement. She critcized the boring life of suburban housewives.

What happened to the middle class during the 50s?

the middle class had a big growth

What was the rise of a culture focused on buying things like in the 50s?

Diner's Club introduced the plastic credit card in 1949, just a year after the first McDonald's fast-food restaurant opened in San Bernardino, California. In 1955, Disneyland opened in Anaheim, California. Easy credit, the mass production of fast food, and new ways to spend leisure time marked a new, wealthy lifestyle that soon spread beyond America.

What was a key part of the lifestyle of buying things?

It was the rapid growth of television. Only 6 TV stations were broadcasting in 1946; ten years later, there were 442 stations. TV sets were expensive and new in the 1940s, but 7 million sets were sold in 1951. By 1960, almost every American home had one, showing how quickly new technologies can spread and change modern societies.

What wree the effects of TV?

Fewer people went to the movies as the entertainment industry shifted its focus from movie theaters to television.

How did religion use the tool of TV?

Televangelists" like Baptist Billy Graham, Pentecostal preacher Oral Roberts, and Catholic Fulton J. Sheen used the airwaves to spread their Christian messages.

What did sports reflect?

It reflected the population shift towards the West and South. In 1958, the New York Giants baseball team moved to San Francisco, and the Brooklyn Dodgers moved to Los Angeles. These moves started a trend of sports teams moving west and south. The changing population and increasing wealth eventually led to a significant expansion of the major baseball, basketball, and football leagues.

Who changed popular music in the fifties and how?

The main person responsible for the change was Elvis Presley, a white singer born in 1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi. By mixing black rhythm and blues with white bluegrass and country music, Elvis created a new style of music that became known as rock 'n' roll.

What were the effects of rock music?

Rock music crossed cultural lines, bringing its strong beat and rhythms to both black and white musical traditions.

Who was John Kenneth Galbraith and what did he do?

He was a Harvard economist who questoined the connection between private wealth and the public good in a series of books, starting with "The Affluent Society" (1958). Galbraith argued that the post-war boom had created a troubling situation where people had a lot of nice things but public services were poor. People had televisions in their homes but garbage in the streets. They ate rich food but breathed polluted air. But Galbraith's call for more government spending on public needs to match private spending was mostly ignored in the excited and wealthy 1950s.

What was the election of 1952 like?

The Democratic Party's chances in the 1952 presidential election were hurt by the stalemate in the Korean War, President Truman's conflict with General MacArthur, inflation caused by the war, and rumors of scandal in the White House. They nominated Adlai E. Stevenson. Republicans chose the war hero General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower’s running mate was Senator Richard M. Nixon. Eisenhower won, which was helped by his promise to go to Korea to end the war personally. GOP also got control of Congress

Why was telvsion a power tool politically?

It allowed candidates to connect directly with voters, bypassing the traditional party organizations.

What was the conclusion to the Korean war?

SEveral months after he made the promise to visit Korea, an armistice was signed. The Chinese had agreed to end the war for their own reasons, especially because of hte high financial cost.

What was the result of the Korean war?

It only resulted in a return to the situation in 1950): Korea remained divided at the thirty-eighth parallel, with a communist North and a more Western-leaning South. Americans took some comfort in the fact that communism had been "contained" and that the fighting had been "limited" to something less than a full-scale global war. The shooting had stopped, but the Cold War remained tense.

Who was Joseph R. MacCarthY?

. McCarthy was a Republican from Wisconsin who became very popular and powerful by loudly accusing people of being communists.

What did McCarth ydo in 1950?

He accused the SEcretary of State, Dean Acheson, of knowingly hiring 205 members of the Communist Party. When asked to name them, McCarthy changed his story, saying there were only 57 real communists, and in the end, he couldn't even prove that any of them were.  

What happened to McCarthy after Republicans won the 1952 election?

McCarthy became even bolder and made wilder accusations. He believed communists were everywhere. He accused the Democrats of being communist sympathizers. he also attacke General George Marshall, a respected former army chief of staff and Secretary of State, calling him part of a huge and evil conspiracy.  

What is McCarthyism?

Waht McCarthy and his ideas became known as. His aggressive tactics and sensational claims about communists in the government gave rise to the term "McCarthyism," meaning making accusations without proper evidence.

How did Eisenhower view McCarthy?

President Eisenhower didn't like McCarthy but tried to avoid confronting him publicly. Trying to keep McCarthy happy, Eisenhower let him have influence over who was hired and fired in the State Department. This hurt the morale and effectiveness of the people working in foreign service. Specifically, McCarthy's actions led to the removal of experts on Asia, who might have given better advice about Vietnam in the years that followed.  

What were the effects of McCarthy’s extreeme behavior?

It hurt America's reputation as a fair and open democracy and damaged American traditions of fairness and free speech.

What did McCarthy do that was too far?

He had attacked the US army. The army fought back in televised hearings that lasted for 35 days in the spring of 1954. These hearings showed how powerful television could be, as up to 20 million Americans watched McCarthy come across as rude, mean, and irresponsible, which ultimately hurt his own reputation. A few months later, the Senate officially condemned him for acting inappropriately.

How did black peopole in America live in around 1950?

Most of them lived in the South. . They were living under a system of segregation, where laws and customs kept them separate from white people.

These laws, known as Jim Crow laws, controlled every part of their lives, from schools to restrooms. Black people in the South had to deal with separate and unequal facilities, which kept them poorer and without political power.  

What black suffarage like?

Only about 20% of Black people in the South who were eligible to vote were registered.

What wree examples of violence being used to enforce Jim Crow laws?

In the summer of 1946, six Black war veterans were murdered for trying to claim the rights they had fought for overseas. In 1955, a Black teenager named Emmett Till was lynched in Mississippi for allegedly looking at a white woman.

What was Gunnar Mydral and what did he do?

A Swedish scholar named Gunnar Myrdal wrote a famous book called "An American Dilemma," which pointed out the huge contradiction between America's ideals of progress, liberty, equality, and humanitarianism, and the way the country treated its Black citizens.

 

What led to some progress in racial equality in the North after WWII?

It was due to international pressure and activism and legal action within the country.

What did Jackie Robinson do?

In 1947, Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in baseball when the Brooklyn Dodgers signed him.

What did the NAACP successfully do in 1950?

The NAACP, a civil rights organization, successfully argued in front of the Supreme Court in 1950 that separate professional schools for Black people were not equal.

Who was Rosa Parks and what did she do?

She was a black esamstress who made history in Montgomery, Alabama. She boarded a bus and sat in the "whites only" section. When asked to give up her seat, she refused. Her arrest for breaking the city's segregation laws led to a year-long boycott of city buses by Black people. This event showed the South that Black people would no longer accept segregation without a fight.

What was one effect of teh Montogomery bus boycott?

It brought a young paster named Martin Luther King Jr.

What was MLK like?

King was only twenty-seven years old and seemed unlikely to be a leader. He had grown up in a well-off Black family in Atlanta and had been educated partly in the North, so he hadn't experienced the worst of segregation. However, his powerful speaking skills, his strong belief in justice, and his commitment to nonviolent methods inspired by India's Mohandas Gandhi made him a key figure in the Black revolution that was about to spread across the South and the rest of the country.

How did Truman react to the lynching of Black war vets in 1946?

He was shocked. . He ordered a report called "To Secure These Rights," which recommended actions to improve civil rights. Following the report's advice, Truman ended segregation in the federal government and ordered equal treatment in the military in 1948. However, Congress resisted passing civil rights laws, and Truman's successor, Dwight Eisenhower, didn't seem very interested in the issue.  

Which branch in government took the lead in the civil rights movement?

It was the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice, Earl Warren, surprised many people by actively intervening in social issues that had previously been considered off-limits. Eisenhower didn't like Warren and criticized him privately, but Warren bravely led the Court to address important issues that Congress and the president were avoiding.

What did Warren’s Supreme Court vote in the caose of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954?

The court had an unanimous decision in that segregation in public schools was “inherently unequal” and therfore unconstitutional. This therefore overturned hte Court’s earlier decision in 1896, which had said that “separate but equal” faciliiteis were allowed under teh Constitution.

How did the states react to the Brown v. Court of Education ruling?

The states along the border between the North and South generally tried to follow the ruling, but states in the Deep South strongly resisted. More than a hundred Southern members of Congress signed a "Declaration of Constitutional Principles" in 1956, promising to fight desegregation. Some states used public money to create private schools, where it was harder to enforce integration.

Why was Eisenhower hesitant to push for integratioon?

His personal views may have influence him as he had grown up in an all-white town, spent his career in a segregated army, and had advised agianst integrating the armed forces. He refused to publically support the Court’s decision.

What was Eisenhower forced to do in 1957?

The governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, used the National Guard to block nine Black students from enrolling in Little Rock's Central High School. Seeing this as a direct challenge to federal authority, Eisenhower sent federal troops to escort the students to class.j

What was the Civil Rights Act that Congress had passed in 1957 like?

t created a permanent Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of civil rights and allowed the federal government to issue orders to protect voting rights.

What was the Soutehrn Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) like?

Martin Luther King, Jr., formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. The goal of the SCLC was to use the power of Black churches to fight for Black rights. This was a smart strategy because churches were the largest and best-organized Black institutions that were allowed to exist in a segregated society.  

What was the “sit-in” movement like?

It started in 1960, when four Black college freshmen in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat down at a "whites only" lunch counter at Woolworth's and asked to be served. The Black waitress refused, saying they were making their race look bad. But the students stayed in their seats and returned the next day with nineteen classmates. The day after that, eighty-five students joined them, and by the end of the week, there were a thousand. The sit-in movement quickly spread across the South. They did it to demand equal treatment in restaurants, transportation, jobs, housing, and voting registration.

What was the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)?

IN 1960, Black students in the South formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to organize the sit-ins more effectively. These young and passionate SNCC members would eventually become impatient with the more cautious tactics of the SCLC and the legal approach of the NAACP.

What was Eisenhower’s “dynamic conservatism/”

He advised to be "liberal" and "human" when dealing with people, but to be "conservative" when it came to their money, the economy, or the government. This balanced approach fit the mood of the country, which was still recovering from the Great Depression and World War II.

What was Eisenhower’s economic goal?

Eisenhower wanted to balance the federal budget and protect the country from what he called "creeping socialism."

What were Eisenhower’s Secretary of Health, Education, and WElfare against?

They didn’t like the free distribution of the Salk polio vaccine and deemed it “socialized medicine.”

What was Operation Wetback like?

Eisenhower also responded to concerns from the Mexican government about illegal immigration undercutting the bracero program, which brought in legal farmworkers from Mexico. In a large operation called "Operation Wetback," around 1 million Mexicans were arrested and sent back to Mexico in 1954.

What were Eisenhower’s policies toward the INdians like?

He tried to end the tribal preservation policies for Native Americans that had been in place since 1934 under the "Indian New Deal." He proposed to end the legal status of tribes and go back to the idea of assimilation, which had been the goal of the Dawes Act of 1887. Most Native Americans resisted this, and the policy was abandoned in 1961.

How did Eisenhower expand on the New Deal?

He supported the Federal Highway Act of 1956, a $27 billion plan to build 42,000 miles of modern highways, which was a larger public works project than anything the New Dealers had imagined. Eisenhower believed these roads were important for national defense, allowing troops to move quickly across the country in case of a Soviet invasion. Besides defense, these new roads created many construction jobs and sped up the growth of suburbs.

What were the effect sof the HIghway act?

The Highway Act benefited the trucking, automobile, oil, and travel industries, but it hurt the railroad industry, especially passenger trains. The act also made air pollution and energy consumption worse, and it had negative effects on cities, causing once-busy downtown areas to decline as shopping malls and other businesses moved to the suburbs.

What were the Republicans’ views toward foreign policy?

They believed the idea of “containg” communism wasn’t enough.

What was Dulles’s policy of boldness (massive retaliation policy)?

Eisenhower would reduce the importance of the army and navy and build up an air force of powerful bombers (called the Strategic Air Command, or SAC) equipped with nuclear bombs. These weapons would be used to launch "massive retaliation" against the Soviets or the Chinese if they became aggressive. The advantages of this policy were that it had a powerful nuclear threat and was cheaper than maintaining large conventional forces

How did Eisenhower’s attempt to improve relations with the USSR?

He tried to negotiate iwth the new Soviet leaders who came to power after Joseph Stalin's death in 1953.. It didn’t work out—the new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, rejected Eisenhower's proposal in 1955 for an "open skies" plan, where both countries would allow the other to inspect their military facilities from the air.

What revealed the limitations of the massive retaliation policY?

In 1956, when the Hungarians revolted against Soviet control, they felt betrayed when the United States didn't offer them any help. The brutal suppression of the Hungarian uprising showed that America's powerful nuclear weapons were too extreme to use in smaller conflicts.

What happened in Southeast Asia in the 50s?

In Vietnam and other countries, nationalist movements had been trying for years to break free from French colonial rule.

What was France’s war in Indochina (Southeast Asia) like?

By 1954, American taxpaayers were paying the majority of the cost of France’s war. Despite this massive aid, French forces were losing ground to Ho Chi Minh's nationalist guerrilla forces, called the Viet Minh. They supported it to gain French approval to rearm West Germany. Germany joined NATO in 1955.

Who was Ho Chi Minh and what did he do?

Ho Chi Minh was a key figure in the Vietnam War, leading the Viet Minh (Vietnamese Independence League) against French colonial rule and later becoming the leader of North Vietnam, a communist nation that opposed the US-backed South Vietnam. 

What were the two sides in the Vietnam War?

North Vietnam (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (the Republic of Vietnam), with North Vietnam being supported by communist countries like the Soviet Union and China, and South Vietnam supported by the United States and other anti-communist nations.

How was the policy of boldness tested in Vietnam?

Secretary Dulles, Vice President Nixon, and the head of the military supported using American bombers to help the French. But Eisenhower, worried about starting another war in Asia so soon after the Korean War and knowing that Britain wouldn't support it, refused.

What was the Battle of Dien Bien Phu like?

The Viet Minh won.

How was Vietnam divided?

At a conference in Geneva, Vietnam was divided roughly in half at the seventeenth parallel. Ho Chi Minh, who controlled the north, agreed to this arrangement with the promise that nationwide elections would be held within two years. In the south, a pro-Western government under Ngo Dinh Diem was established in Saigon.  

Did the elections in Vietnam ever happen?

No, mainly becuase it seemed certain that the communists would win.

Which side the the US support?

Eisenhower promised economic and military aid to Diem's government, as long as it made some social reforms.

What was the Warsaw Pact?

The Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of communist states, was created in 1955 as a direct response to the formation of NATO and the rearmament of West Germany, which the Soviet Union viewed as a threat to its security and control over Eastern Europe.

What were signs of easing Cold War relations in 1955?

The Soviets agreed to end their occupation of Austria.

What occured in 1956 that ended the period of calm in the Cold wAr?

When Hungarians revolted for their freedom, Soviet tanks crushed the uprising.

How did concerns in the Middle East escalate tensions?

Concerns about Soviet influence in the oil-rich Middle East also increased Cold War tensions. The Iranian government, suspected of being influenced by the Soviets, began to challenge the power of Western oil companies. In response, the American CIA helped orchestrate a coup in 1953, installing the young Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as a ruler. While this secured Iranian oil for the West in the short term, it created lasting resentment among many Iranians, who would later seek revenge.

What was teh Suez crisis?

Egyptian President Nasser, a strong Arab nationalist, sought funds to build a major dam on the Nile River for irrigation and power. The US and Britain initially offered financial aid, but when Nasser started engaging with the communist bloc, the US withdrew its offer. Nasser retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal, which was mainly owned by British and French investors. This action threatened Western Europe's oil supply. Britain and France, without informing the US and coordinating with Israel, launched a joint attack on Egypt in late October 1956.

How did Eisenhower react to the Suez Crisis?

He was furious and refused to supply Britain and France with oil. THe allies were forced to withdraw their troops and a UN peacekeeping force was sent to maintain orde.r

What did the Suez Canal mark?

It marked the end of the US being able to use its oil reserves as leverage.

What was the Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957?

It promised US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression.

What was the real threat to US interests in the MIddle East?

It was nationalism, as demonstrated by Nasser's popularity across Arab countries.

What was the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)?

, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran joined with Venezuela in 1960 to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to control the oil wealth being extracted by Western companies.

What was the 1956 election like?

Eisenhower vs Adlai Stevenson. Eisenhower won but his party didn’t win control of either House or Congress.

What did Eisenhower address in his second term?

Labor legislation—Congressional investigations revealed corruption and unethical practices in many American unions, particularly the Teamsters.

What happened to the Teamsters?

The AFL-CIO, formed by a merger in 1955, expelled the Teamsters in 1957 due to the actions of their leaders.

What was the Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959?

To combat such corruption, Eisenhower pushed Congress to pass the Landrum-Griffin Act in 1959, which aimed to hold labor leaders accountable for financial misconduct and bullying, while also strengthening some anti-labor aspects of the earlier Taft-Hartley Act.

What did Soviet scientists do on Oct. 4, 1957?

They launched the first artificial satellite Sputnik I, into oribt.

How did the US react ot Sputnik I?

This achievement shocked the US, raising doubts about American scientific superiority and highlighting potential military vulnerabilities. eisenhower established the National Aeronautrics and Space Adminstration (NASA).

When did the US launch their own satellite?

Feb. 1958

How did the American edcuation system change after Sputnik?

The Sputnik success prompted a critical review of the American education system, which was seen as too relaxed compared to the Soviet system. A movement emerged to emphasize core subjects over less academic pursuits. While Congress rejected federal scholarships, the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) was passed in 1958, providing loans to needy college students and grants to improve the teaching of science and languages.

What was the spirit of Camp David and how did it end?

A meeting at Camp David resulted in Khrushchev postponing his ultimatum for the evacuation of Berlin, leading to a brief period of optimism known as the "spirit of Camp David." However, this spirit quickly faded when a summit in Paris in May 1960 collapsed. Both Moscow and the US held firm on the issue of Berlin. Just before the summit, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia. After initial denials, Eisenhower took responsibility. Khrushchev reacted angrily, leading to the cancellation of the summit. Hostilities were renewed

Why was Cuba a major concern for the US?

They were worried about the rise of communism in Cuba. Dictator Fulgencio Batista, who had been in power since the 1930s, had encouraged American investment and received US support. However, in early 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution that overthrew Batista.

How did Cuban and US relations deteriorate?

Castro denounced American influence and nationalized American-owned properties as part of a land redistribution program. The US responded by cutting off imports of Cuban sugar. Castro retaliated by seizing more American property and aligning his government economically and militarily with the Soviet Union. The US broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in early 1961 and imposed a trade embargo. Americans were concerned about the Soviet Union establishing a communist base so close to US shores. Khrushchev declared the Monroe Doctrine dead and threatened missile strikes if the US attacked Cuba.

WHat was the 1960 eleciton like?

Republicans nominated Nixon. Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson as his vice president. JFK won, who got support in industrial centers from workers, Catholics, and African Americans

What was JFK’s New Fronteir?

national sacrifice to achieve greatness

What was Kennedy’s religious belief?

He was Catholic, which made some worry about potential influence from the Pope.

Why was television a crucial role in the 1960 election?

Nixon and Kennedy participated in four televised debates, reaching a large audience. While no clear winner was declared, Kennedy's image and energy were seen as more appealing than Nixon's more tired appearance.

What two places became states in 1959?

Alaska and Hawaii became states in 1959, expanding the US and shifting its focus towards the Pacific.