PSY 12000 Unit 2 Exam Purdue University

CH 5

Sensation and Perception

Sensation

The detection of signals in the environment by sensor receptors in the body

Perception

The organization and interpretation of this (sensation) information

Signal Detection Theory

Studies the extent to which we notice things based on a sensory process and decision process

Absolute Threshold

Minimum amount of stimulation that is needed to detect sensory input

Just Noticeable Difference

Measures how much change is necessary for us to notice a change that has taken place

Attention

Helps filter out unimportant information but it limited

Focuses on processes such a sensory adaptation and selective attention

Bottom-Up Processing

Starts from a raw sensation and goes up to complex perception

EX: smell->nose->neural impulses->brain

Top-Down Processing

Previous knowledge can affect how we process and organize specific raw data

Perceptual Set

Expectations of what we think we shall perceive can drive how we process perceptual information

EX: we can raed tihs wthiuot porbelm

Synesthesia

When senses get bundles together

May occur due to a breakdown in either way of processing

Structure of the Eye

Each eye has 130-megapixel resolution (cameras have 12-20)

Each eye has 120-125 million rods, and 7-8 million cones

Fovea

Higher concentration of receptors

Sensory Memory

Allows us to create a larger perception of detail than just seen by fovea by details around it

Perception: Gestalt

Gestalt psychologists described various different principals of perceptual organization

• similarity

• continuity

• proximity

• closure

3-D Visual Perception

Visual system that is to discern depth

Hypothesized to have evolutionary value for breaking camouflage

2 different types of info we use to perceive depth

Binocular Cues

Come to virtue of having two eyes

Monocular Cues

Perceived with one eye only

• relative size

• occlusion/ interposition

• linear perspective/ convergence

• clarity

• shadow

• motion parallax

Retinal Disparity

The difference between the images that reach each eye

• allows the brain to estimate depth

3-D Auditory Perception

Hearing can locate sounds in 3D

Brain compares sounds from both ears to locate the source of the noise on loudness and arrival time

CH 6

Learning

Behaviorism

The study of humans via observable behavior and how it is affected by environment

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association

The process of associating a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits response

Ivan Pavlov

The association process leads to the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response.

CC Process

Begin with neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. The UCS brings about the target behavior (unconditioned response). We want the neutral stimulus to cause target behavior. Neutral stimulus associated repeatedly with the UCS. Pairing the two has to be close in time. UCS triggers UCR. After however long, present neutral stimulus by itself and the result should be natural stimulus triggers target behavior, and the neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

Related terms to CC

Stimulus discrimination: usually we will learn to respond differently to a stimulus that are similar to cs but not the same

Stimulus generalization: sometimes stimulus similar to cs will bring out the cr

Extinction: if you dont periodically re-associate the cs with the ucs, the cs will cease to bring about the cr

Operant Conditioning

Learn by consequences

Future likelihood of a behavior depends on consequences of that behavior

Reinforcement: happens when you INCREASE the future likelihood of a behavior

Punishment: happens when you DECREASE the future likelihood of a behavior

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something to increase the future likelihood of response

EX: giving dog treat for peeing outside

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something to increase the future likelihood of a response

EX: Removing beep when fastening seatbelt

Positive Punishment

Adding something to decrease the future likelihood

EX: Giving candy to crying kid to shut them up

Negative Punishment

Removing something to decrease the future likelihood

EX: Taking money via fine to reduce speeding

Schedules of Reinforcement

Effectiveness of reinforcement depends on how often it is applied

Can be continuous or partial (every time or sometimes)

• ratio: based on number of behaviors

-interval: based on amount of time

Shaping

OC can bring about more complex behaviors than CC

Can be accomplished through shaping: rewards behaviors as they get closer to complex target behaviors.

Punishing - Parenting

Less likely to work when

• doesn't immediately follow the behavior

• child doesn't know what it's for

• accidentally serves as a reinforcer

• provokes anger instead of behavior change

• used inconsistent

More likely to work when

• immediately follows children's behavior

• administered consistently

Observational Learning

Extension of operant conditioning which includes internal factors (Imitation + Expectation)

Banduras Social Theory

Follows may principal of operant conditioning but also includes roles for

• observation/modeling behavior, not just experience

• cognitive decision making based on expectations derived from seeing how others are treated via vicarious punishment and reinforcement

Social Learning Theory

Children can learn from watching parents, peers, movies, TV

Can lead to increased violence following violent media

CH 7

Thinking and Intelligence

Cognitive Psychology

Dedicated to how people think

Examines how we manipulate our memories, knowledge, language, creativity

Often refers to purposeful, concours activity, but also processes hay happen outside of consciousness.

Concepts and Knowledge

Concept: category/grouping of linguistic info, images, ideas, or memories such as life experiences.

Natural concepts: formed through our experiences and observations

Artificial concept: defined by specific characteristics

How do we form concepts?

Prototype resemblance: based on resemblance to ideal, children rely on this in language acquisition

Propositions: rules that define category membership, may be based off of necessary and sufficient features, sometimes can be difficult to nail down.

How do we define concepts?

Cognitive schemata: a schema is a mental construct or a cluster of collection of related concepts.

• this network of prototypes, propositions, rules, and knowledge guides us in judgements and behavior, and helps us reduce mental effort

• a set of cognitive shortcuts, more of a theoretical model in process

-role and event schema useful in everyday life

Schemata and Expertise

Expertise may be primarily rooted in having better schemata for organizing information

Problem Solving

Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics

Heuristics

Availability: what they think they know

Representativeness: how similar to previously known

Errors in Reasoning

Mental set, functional fixedness, emotion