Introduction to Psychology and Psychological Research Methods

Vocabulary flashcards covering foundational concepts, historical perspectives, major fields, and research methodology in psychology from Chapters 1 and 2.

Trephination

The historical practice of making a hole in the skull, believed by ancestors to allow evil spirits to leave the body and cure mental illness.

Empirical Research

Scientific research that is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed repeatedly regardless of who is observing.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of reasoning in the scientific process where results are predicted based on a general premise.

Inductive Reasoning

A form of reasoning in the scientific process where conclusions are drawn from specific empirical observations.

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A tentative and testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables that is falsifiable.

Clinical or Case Study

An observational research approach focusing on one individual, typically in an extreme or unique psychological circumstance.

Naturalistic Observation

An observational research method involving the observation of behavior in its natural setting without experimental manipulation.

Observer Bias

A skewing of research observations to align with the expectations of the observer.

Survey

A list of questions delivered paper-and-pencil, electronically, or verbally to gather data from a subset of individuals from a larger population.

Archival Research

A research method that examines past records or data sets to answer research questions or identify patterns.

Cross-Sectional Research

A research design that compares multiple segments of a population at a single point in time.

Longitudinal Research

A study design in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Attrition

The reduction in the number of research participants as individuals drop out of a study over time.

Correlation Coefficient

A number from $-1$ to $+1$, usually represented by $r$, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Confounding Variable

An unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable cause changes in the other.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when in reality no such relationship exists.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to ignore or discount evidence that disproves one's existing ideas or beliefs.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment that experiences the manipulated variable designed to answer the research question.

Control Group

Participants in an experiment who do not experience the manipulated variable, serving as a basis for comparison.

Operational Definition

A precise description of the actions and operations used to measure dependent variables and manipulate independent variables.

Single-Blind Study

An experiment in which the researcher knows group assignments but the participants do not, controlling for participant expectations.

Double-Blind Study

An experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are unaware of group assignments, controlling for experimenter and participant expectations.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon in which participants' expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation.

Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is controlled or manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured by a researcher to determine how much effect the independent variable had.

Random Sample

A subset of a population in which every member has an equal chance of being selected for participation.

Random Assignment

A method of experimental group assignment where all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental or control group.

Reliability

The consistency and reproducibility of a given result or data collection tool.

Inter-rater Reliability

A measure of agreement among different observers on how they record and classify a particular event.

Validity

The accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants.

Informed Consent

The process of informing a human research participant about what to expect, potential risks, and voluntary participation before obtaining agreement to participate.

Deception

Purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain the integrity of an experiment without causing harm.

Debriefing

Providing complete and truthful information to participants about an experiment upon its conclusion, particularly when deception was involved.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

A committee that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals to ensure ethical treatment and minimization of distress.

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Structuralism

An early perspective in psychology focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection, championed by Wilhelm Wundt.

Introspection

A process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into component parts.

Functionalism

An early perspective in psychology established by William James focusing on how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A perspective founded by Sigmund Freud focusing on the role of a person's unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in affecting conscious behavior.

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological approach based on the idea that while sensory experience can be broken into parts, individuals respond to how those parts relate to each other as a whole.

Behaviorism

An approach in psychology focused on observing and controlling observable behavior rather than unobservable mental processes.

Humanism

A perspective in psychology championed by Maslow and Rogers that emphasizes the potential for good innate to all humans.

Client-Centered Therapy

A therapy method developed by Carl Rogers where the client takes a lead role, requiring unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy from the therapist.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology, known for researching animal behavior.

Sensation

Raw sensory information received by bodily sensory systems, such as sights, sounds, touch, and smell.

Perception

The psychological experience and interpretation of sensory information, influenced by attention, past experiences, and cultural background.

Biopsychosocial Model

A health psychology model suggesting that health and illness are determined by an interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Forensic Psychology

A branch of psychology dealing with questions arising in the context of the justice system, including competency evaluations and advisement on eyewitness testimony.