Anatomy and Physiology for Pilates Professionals

Anatomical Position

The standard reference position where the body stands upright with arms by the sides, palms facing forwards, feet parallel, and toes and head facing forwards.

Sagittal Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections; flexion and extension movements occur in this plane.

Frontal Plane

A plane that divides the body into front and back sections; abduction and adduction movements occur in this plane.

Transverse Plane

Also known as the horizontal plane, it divides the body into upper and lower halves; rotation movements occur in this plane.

Frontal Axis

An axis of movement running from left to right through the centre of the body around which movements like somersaults rotate.

Sagittal Axis

An axis of movement running from front to back through the centre of the body around which movements like cartwheels rotate.

Vertical Axis

An axis of movement running from top to bottom through the centre of the body around which rotational movements like a skater's spin occur.

Medial

Directional term describing a location toward the middle or midline of the body.

Lateral

Directional term describing a location away from the midline toward the side of the body.

Proximal

Directional term describing a position closest to the middle or trunk of the body, used mainly when referring to limbs.

Distal

Directional term describing a position furthest away from the middle or trunk of the body, used mainly when referring to limbs.

Flexion

Movement of adjacent body parts so that the angle between the body parts decreases.

Extension

Movement where the angle between two adjacent body parts increases, or any movement beyond neutral opposite to flexion.

Abduction

Movement of a body part away from the midline of the body.

Adduction

Movement of a body part towards the midline of the body.

Supination

For hands, movement where palms face forwards in anatomical position; for feet, turning so the sole rotates medially.

Pronation

For hands, movement where palms face backwards in anatomical position; for feet, turning so the sole rotates laterally.

Dorsi Flexion

Moving the foot upwards so the angle between the foot and shin bone decreases and toes move closer to the shin.

Plantar Flexion

Moving the foot downwards so the angle between the top of the foot and shin bone increases.

Levels of Structural Organisation

The six hierarchical levels of body architecture: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism.

Pulmonary Circulation

The movement of deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs for gas exchange and back to the left atrium as oxygenated blood.

Systemic Circulation

The movement of oxygenated blood away from the left side of the heart through the aorta to the body tissues, and the return of deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via the vena cava.

Sinoatrial Node (SA node)

A small bundle of specialized cells in the right atrium that acts as the body's natural pacemaker by sending electrical impulses across the atria walls to cause contraction.

Atrioventricular Node (AV node)

A bundle of cells between the atria and ventricles that slows the electrical signal down before it enters the ventricles, giving time for the atria to contract.

Systolic Blood Pressure

The measure of force generated by the heart on artery walls during its contraction phase, with a normal range of $110\text{-}130$\,$\text{mmHg}$.

Diastolic Blood Pressure

The pressure exerted on vessel walls during the relaxation or filling phase of the heart, with a normal range of $70\text{-}90$\,$\text{mmHg}$.

Stroke Volume

The amount of blood pumped out of the heart each time the ventricles contract, averaging approximately $70$\,$\text{ml}$.

Cardiac Output

The total volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, calculated as $\text{Cardiac Output (Q)} = \text{Heart Rate (HR)} \times \text{Stroke Volume (SV)}$.

Cardiac Hypertrophy

Long-term adaptation to exercise involving an increase in cardiac muscle size, specifically thickening of the left ventricle wall to pump more blood per contraction.

Diffusion

The process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached, enabling gas exchange in the alveoli.

Tidal Volume

The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal, relaxed breath, averaging approximately $500$\,$\text{ml}$ in healthy adult males and $400$\,$\text{ml}$ in females.

Vital Capacity

The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a deep inhalation, calculated as $\text{Tidal Volume} + \text{Inspiratory Reserve Volume} + \text{Expiratory Reserve Volume}$.

Oxygen Debt

The volume of oxygen required after vigorous exercise to remove accumulated lactic acid and replace the body's glycogen and oxygen reserves.

Axial Skeleton

The central division of the skeleton consisting of $80$ bones including the skull, middle ear ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebrae, and thoracic cage.

Appendicular Skeleton

The division of the skeleton made up of $126$ bones including the shoulders, pelvis, and limbs that enable movement.

Classification of Bones by Shape

The categorization of bones into five distinct shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.

Diaphysis

The central shaft of a long bone composed mostly of dense compact bone for strength and rigidity.

Epiphysis

The rounded ends (proximal and distal) of a long bone containing spongy cancellous bone designed to withstand compression forces.

Periosteum

A tough, fibrous outer sheath covering bone that is rich in blood vessels and nerves, essential for bone nourishment and repair.

Osteoblasts

Bone cells responsible for building new bone tissue during growth and remodelling.

Osteoclasts

Bone cells responsible for breaking down or resorbing bone tissue.

Kyphosis

Excessive outward curvature of the thoracic spine, leading to rounded shoulders or an upper back hump.

Lordosis

Abnormal inward curvature of the lumbar spine, characterized by a swayback posture with a protruding abdomen and buttocks.

Scoliosis

Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine resulting in an S- or C-shaped alignment when viewed from the back.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary processing centre of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that drives the stress response